On this page you will find the concepts of the reports our students are planning to submit at the end of in the Environmental Regulation & Redress (Cornwall) module in 2025/26.
Bottom-towed fishing in the United Kingdom: Legal solutions to an environmental harm (Ollie Rooney)
Bottom-towed fishing practices are a huge problem globally. The fishing gear used often ploughs over the same areas multiple times which destroys benthic communities, sometimes taking decades to recover (Hilborn et al., 2023). Known as the most wasteful method of fishing, it was estimated that around 10 million tonnes of marine life was discarded in the year 2014 (Zeller et al., 2018). As well as this, it may also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions through releasing stored organic carbon from the seabed (Black et al., 2022). Although these problems occur all over the world (Oberle et al., 2016), this report focuses on legal solutions only in the context of the UK.
There are three Highly Protected Marine Areas in the UK which are designated as Marine Conservation Zones (MCZ) by the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 (Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 2023). This protects them from bottom-towed fishing as well as other harmful practices (Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 2023). However, as of mid-2023 there were 377 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in total around the UK (Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2023) and bottom trawling is not necessarily prohibited in these areas as they only prevent activities which harm the specific protected feature of the MPA (UK Parliament – Committees, 2025). Command and control legal mechanisms could provide a potential solution to this issue by implementing a ban on the use of bottom-towed fishing gear in all MPAs. Using an ecosystem-protection approach would be more effective than the specific feature-protection approach which is currently in use (Blampied et al., 2022).
Due to high seafood demands, a complete ban on bottom trawling may be unfeasible, a study by Hilborn et al. (2023) showed that when managed properly, trawling can occur in a sustainable manner. Adaptive legal mechanisms may provide a better solution to protecting fish stocks and biodiversity. Trawling could be limited or prohibited on a case-by-case basis in response to monitoring data which organisations such as the Marine Management Organisation, Marine Scotland and the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs collect (Marine Management Organisation, 2014). Through this flexible approach economic gain could continue whilst ensuring that overexploitation is avoided. Where these regulations are broken, legal redress through criminal sanctions and prosecution could bring the offender to justice and attempt to repair the damage caused (Bell et al., 2017).
Market-based mechanisms could also be used to influence the behaviour of organisations. They could be charged or fined for the environmental damage caused, in line with the polluter pays principle. Permits to place the costs of monitoring and regulation on the organisation could also be introduced (Bell et al., 2024).
Bell, S., McGillivray, D., Pedersen, O. W., Lees, E., & Stokes, E. (2017). 8. Environmental crime and enforcement. In Environmental Law. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198748328.003.0008
Bell, S., McGillivray, D., Pedersen, O. W., Lees, E., & Stokes, E. (2024). 7. The regulation of environmental protection. In Environmental Law (pp. 174–210). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780192847690.003.0007
Black, K. E., Smeaton, C., Turrell, W. R., & Austin, W. E. N. (2022). Assessing the potential vulnerability of sedimentary carbon stores to bottom trawling disturbance within the UK EEZ. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.892892
Blampied, S. R., Rees, S. E., Attrill, M. J., Binney, F. C. T., & Sheehan, E. V. (2022). Removal of bottom-towed fishing from whole-site Marine Protected Areas promotes mobile species biodiversity. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 276, 108033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2022.108033
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (2023) Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs). Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/highly-protected-marine-areas/highly-protected-marine-areas-hpmas#how-we-will-manage-pilot-hpmas (Accessed: 30 October 2025).
Hilborn, R., Amoroso, R., Collie, J., Hiddink, J. G., Kaiser, M. J., Mazor, T., McConnaughey, R. A., Parma, A. M., Pitcher, C. R., Sciberras, M., & Suuronen, P. (2023). Evaluating the sustainability and environmental impacts of trawling compared to other food production systems. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 80(6), 1567–1579. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsad115
Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2023) UK Marine Protected Area network statistics. Available at: https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/uk-marine-protected-area-network-statistics/ (Accessed: 30 October 2025).
Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009, c. 1. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2009/23/part/5/chapter/1 (Accessed: 30 October 2025).
Marine Management Organisation (2014) Fishing data collection, coverage, processing and revisions. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/fishing-activity-and-landings-data-collection-and-processing#data-revisions-policy (Accessed: 1 November 2025).
Oberle, F. K. J., Storlazzi, C. D., & Hanebuth, T. J. J. (2016). What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment. Journal of Marine Systems, 159, 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007
UK Parliament – Committees. (2025, September 10). Government rejects outright bottom trawling ban despite pledge. https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/62/environmental-audit-committee/news/209231/government-rejects-outright-bottom-trawling-ban-despite-pledge/
Zeller, D., Cashion, T., Palomares, M., & Pauly, D. (2018). Global marine fisheries discards: A synthesis of reconstructed data. Fish and Fisheries, 19(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12233
Wastewater Pollution in the Southwest of England (Alistair Sayer)
Wastewater pollution is a substantial issue in the Southwest of England, the water company Southwest Water has been dumping sewage / wastewater into the sea for decades (Hassell , 2025). Wastewater processing facilities often collect both rainwater and sewage, as a result of a storm these facilities experience considerably more liquid, to prevent flooding combined sewage overflows (CSOs) are opened to relieve pressure (Marine Conservation Society, 2025). This in turn results in the release of wastewater into the rivers and seas of Cornwall and Devon.
Sewage pollution often causes processes such as eutrophication to occur, this is where nutrients in the water such as phosphorus cause accelerated plant and algae growth (Wildlife Trust of South & West Wales, 2023). Increased concentrations of plant and algae in seas and waterways can lead to low oxygen levels, adversely affecting fish and other sea life (Bell et al., 2024).
Currently in the UK, wastewater treatment works must obtain a pollution permit from the environment agency in order to release sewage into waterways via CSOs. Under Schedule 21 of The Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010 a waste water treatment work is allowed legally discharge sewage, trade effluent and other waste into water bodies providing the company holds the required environmental permits and follows liability rules (The Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010, 2010).
However, the pollution permits issued by the Environment Agency do little to deter discharge of water waste by sewage companies, instead they appear to simply authorise these releases. With Southwest Water releasing sewage for 544,439 hours in 2024. A potential alternative could be tradeable pollution permits, limiting pollution permits would result in the market placing a high price on the ability to release waste. In turn this could lead to increased investment into expanding capacity of facilities across the country, reducing wastewater release exponentially.
References
Bell, S., Mcgillivray, D., Pedersen, O. W., Lees, E., & Stokes, E. (2024). Environmental Law (10th ed.). Oxford University Press. Copyright.
Hassell , C. (2025). Sewage treatment – what you should know. Greenspec; srcnet. https://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/sewage.treatment/
Marine Conservation Society. (2025). Sewage pollution. Marine Conservation Society. https://www.mcsuk.org/ocean-emergency/ocean-pollution/water-quality-and-sewage/sewage-pollution/
The Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010, Schedule 21 (2010).
Wildlife Trust of South & West Wales. (2023, October 27). Sewage spills impact people and wildlife | The Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales. Www.welshwildlife.org. https://www.welshwildlife.org/news/sewage-spills-impact-people-and-wildlife
Implementation of Earthquake Preparedness and Redress Mechanisms in Japan (Lily Mellar)
The 2011 Tohoku earthquake in Japan is representative of one of the world’s most prevalent environmental harms: the earthquake. This event immediate environmental destruction, causing soil liquefaction, extreme coastal erosion, national water contamination, and ecosystem destruction. These harms compromised long term sustainability.
Prevention mechanisms such as The Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act (1961) 1 , aim to reduce risk by using EWS and implementing community preparedness initiatives.
The Act on Support for Reconstructing Livelihoods of Disaster Victims (1998)2 and the Environmental Impact Assessment Law (1997)3 are key redress mechanisms that focus on environmental rehabilitation after the fact. These policies directly align with Principles 15 and 16 in the United Nations General Assembly’s Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)4 .
Japan’s vulnerable ‘Ring of Fire’ location mean that effective disaster prevention policies are extremely important. Shaw and Takeuchi (2012)5 argue that community engagement and legal frameworks are key reasons for Japan’s successful implementation of regulation and redress mechanisms.
References
1 Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act (Japan, 1997)
2 Act on Support for Reconstructing Livelihoods of Disaster Victims (Japan, Act No 66 of 1998, amended by Act No 69 of 2020)
3 Environmental Impact Assessment Act (Japan, Act No 81 of 1997, as amended by Act No 51 of 2014)
4 United Nations General Assembly, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (adopted 14 June 1992, UN Doc A/CONF.151/26 (Vol I))
5 Shaw R and Takeuchi Y, East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami: Evacuation, Communication, Education and Voluntarism (Research Publishing Services 2012) accessed 31 October 2025.
Plastic Pollution on the Cornish Coast: Towards Localised Mechanisms of Redress (Finn Richards)
Plastic pollution remains one of the most persistent forms of environmental harm along the Cornish coastline. The beaches, coves and estuaries are routinely affected by plastic debris, ranging from microplastics embedded into the sand to discarded fishing gear and packaging waste. This pollution not only endangers marine biodiversity but also undermines Cornwall’s blue-economy sectors including tourism and sustainability fisheries.
A key mechanism for prevention lies in community-led clean-up programmes and strengthening the local circular-economy incentives. Organisations such as Surfers Against Sewage (SAS) have demonstrated how grassroots mobilisation can drive behavioural change and policy advocacy. (Plastic Pollution, n.d.) However long-term redress requires more robust regulatory intervention. Under the Environment Act 2021, local authorities and the Environment Agency are empowered to impose extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes and restrict single-use plastics. (Environment Act 2021, n.d.) Yet enforcement remains inconsistent and local councils often lack resources to monitor compliance effectively.
Initial research supports a multi-layered governance approach. Previous studies have highlighted the importance of regional waste management infrastructure in reducing oceanbound plastic (Jambeck et al., 2015) and emphasises that coastal communities benefit most when economic incentives align with environmental objectives. (Oosterhuis et al., 2014) In Cornwall, integrating EPR revenues into local waste collection systems and regenerative coastal enterprises could enhance accountability and resilience.
Addressing plastic pollution in Cornwall thus requires combining community engagement, targeted regulation and local reinvestment mechanisms. By framing plastic reduction not only as an environmental imperative but as a driver of regional sustainability, Cornwall can position itself as a model for locally led marine protection within the UK’s post Brexit environmental governance framework.
Air Pollution and Public Health in Delhi: Regulatory Challenges and Mechanisms for Redress (Katie Dallas)
Air pollution in Delhi represents one of the most severe environmental and public health crises in the world. Rapid industrialisation, open waste burning, and seasonal crop residue fires have combined to create persistently hazardous air quality levels. In 2016, Delhi hit a peak of ‘481 μg/m³ of average concentrations of suspended particulate matter’ (Our World in Data, 2025) and this exceeds the World Health Organisation (2021) ‘upper boundary recommended limit of 10µm (PM10),’ by more than thirty two times, contributing to over ‘1.85million deaths with a 95% uncertainty level’ (Kumar Singh et al., 2023). This environmental harm disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and low-income communities, raising issues of environmental justice and the right to a clean and healthy environment (United Nations, 2025a, 2025b).
Part of the problem is governed under India’s Environment (Protection) Act 1986, which provides a comprehensive framework for protecting and improving environmental quality in India. The Act (1986) gives an over-arching structure for central government, but it lacks clear mechanisms for enforcement. To combat the rising health concerns of this reactive legislation, the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), launched in 2019, aims to reduce particulate pollution by ‘20–30% by 2024’ through monitoring emissions and enabling inter-state coordination (NCAP, 2019, p. 23).
Despite this new framework and others available, enforcement remains weak due to fragmented governance and a lack of implementation after the research is conducted. Furthermore, there’s an overlapping within all levels of the institutional authority. This is partially due to air pollution being transient and knowing no boarders, suggesting that a top-down approach from international law with a bottom-up municipal approach would be more effective. This is due to effective prevention and redress requiring integrated mechanisms on stricter emission enforcement, compensation for affected communities under the polluter pays principle (Bell et al., 2024, p. 135), and cross-sectoral coordination. Addressing Delhi’s air pollution therefore demands not only legal reform and technological solutions but also sustained political commitment to environmental justice and public health protection.
Bell , S., McGillivray, D., Pederson, O., Lees, E., & Stokes , E. (2024). Environmental Law (10th Edition, p. 135). Oxford University Press.
Dey, A. (2025, October 29). Cloud seeding: Why Delhi’s artificial rain experiment to tackle toxic air failed. BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cglgn83g9xro
The Environment (Protection) Act 1986, Act No. 29 (1986). https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/ep_act_1986.pdf
Government of Inia. (2019). The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). In Dr. S. R. Bhardwaj & S. N. K. Sundaray (Eds.), Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (pp. 1–23). https://mpcb.gov.in/sites/default/files/air-quality/National_Clean_Air_Programme09122019.pdf
Kumar Singh, A., Kumar Singh, A., & Saini, G. (2023). Premature Mortality Risk and Assosciated Economic Loss Assessment due to PM2.5 Exposure in Delhi, India during 2015-2019. In Springer Nature Link (p. 2). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11869-024-01550-1
Our World in Data. (2025). Air pollution, London vs. Delhi. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/air-pollution-london-vs-delhi
The World Health Organisation . (2021). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines (p. 75). https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/551b515e-2a32-4e1a-a58c-cdaecd395b19/content
United Nations. (2025a). Goal 6 | department of economic and social affairs. Sdgs.un.org; United Nations. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6
United Nations. (2025b). Goal 13 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal13
Reclaiming Resilience: Governance and Climate Failure in Pakistan’s 2025 Floods (Ayleen Sheikh)
Pakistan’s 2025 monsoon floods have displaced more than 2 million people, inundated farmland – causing billions of dollars of damage to infrastructure and people. Listed as one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, Pakistan’s experience shows how cracks in environmental governance and social inequality can exacerbate poverty and food insecurity. The floods expose structural failures in disaster management systems and development planning, intensifying climate disaster.
These floods highlight how policy paralysis and institutional neglect have magnified a natural hazard to a national crisis. In conjunction with rapid urbanization, aging dam infrastructures, and weakened structural systems. The Indus River basin (Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalayan region) has shown accelerated glacial retreat and unpredictable thunderstorm patterns due to global warming (Naqvi et al., 2025). Pakistan’s historical pattern of flooding is a direct result of its policy shortcomings.
Mechanisms of redress must move beyond reactive relief to proactively embed climate resilience into Pakistan’s infrastructure and land-use governance frameworks. The National Flood Protection Plan IV (2015–2025) (NDMP 2025, n.d.) outlines watershed management, flood forecasting, strengthening embankments, improving drainage systems, and establishing early warning systems. Though it was a 10-year plan, its implementation has been inconsistent and underfunded. A comparison of 2022 and 2025 floods highlighted the importance of community-based adaptation. Without translating past analysis into action, the affected will remain vulnerable to recurring climate impacts (Sheikh, 2025). Investments in flood-resistant housing, diversification of crops, and micro-insurance for smallholder farmers can build long-term resilience (Change, 2024).
However, policy mechanisms alone cannot address these failures. Embedding environmental rights within national legislation and investing in climate finance is essential for a nature-based solution. Empirical evidence (Otto et al., n.d.) and UNDP’s immediate response to Pakistan’s recurring floods (UNDP, 2025) suggest learning from 2022 and pushing for emergency flood relief in areas most affected. Finally, adopting a rights-based approach towards ecological integrity, human livelihoods, and access to environmental justice can ensure Pakistan’s most vulnerable communities are safeguarded amidst the next monsoon. This raises a question whether Pakistan’s climate governance is reactive – prioritizing post-disaster relief over preventive adaptation – reflecting broader challenges faced by Global South nations navigating climate injustice.
References
Change, C. (2024). Ministry of Climate Change and Environmental Coordination. [online] Mocc.gov.pk. Available at: https://mocc.gov.pk.
Dar, M. (2025). PAKISTAN LEGAL ANALYSIS OF MONSOON FLOODS TRIGGERED BY CLIMATE CHANGE IN PAKISTAN. [online] Canadian Legal Research Journal (CLRJ). Available at: https://www.academia.edu/143936983/PAKISTAN_LEGAL_ANALYSIS_OF_MONSOON_FLOODS_TRIGGERED_BY_CLIMATE_CHANGE_IN_PAKISTAN [Accessed 28 Oct. 2025].
Naqvi, M.H., Rehman, A., Maqsoom Rizvi, S.H. and Adeen, H. (2025). Governance, Infrastructure, and Climate Lessons from Pakistan’s 2025 Floods. doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5545601.
NDMP 2025. (n.d.). Available at: http://www.ndma.gov.pk [Accessed 30 Oct. 2025].
Otto, F., Zachariah, M., Saeed, F., Siddiqi, A., Shahzad, K., Mushtaq, H., Achutarao, K., Chaithra, Barnes, C., Philip, S., Kew, S., Vautard, R., Koren, G., Thalheimer, L., Raju, E., Li, S., Yang, W., Harrington, L. and Clarke, B. (n.d.). Final Climate change likely increased extreme monsoon rainfall, flooding highly vulnerable communities in Pakistan. [online] Available at: https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/wp-content/uploads/Pakistan-floods-scientific-report.pdf.
Sheikh, A.T. (2025). PDNA 2022 vs PDNA 2025. [online] DAWN. Available at: https://www.dawn.com/news/1950716 [Accessed 30 Oct. 2025].
UN News. (2025). ‘The needs are huge’: Pakistan reels from floods as millions left homeless. [online] Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/09/1165864.
UNDP. (2025). Building Resilience: UNDP’s Response to Pakistan’s Recurring Floods. [online] Available at: https://www.undp.org/pakistan/building-resilience-undps-response-pakistans-recurring-floods.
Threats to African Elephants: Conservation Challenges and the Fight Against Wildlife Crime (Evie Pyle)
African Elephants are heavy, not just in weight but also in importance. As a keystone species, they regulate ecosystems, providing other species with access to water and nutrients, and maintaining biodiversity by dispersing seeds.1 In central African forests, at least a third of tree species rely on elephants.2 Furthermore, elephants have a mitigating effect on climate change, by opening up the forest canopy to enable large, carbon storing trees to grow.3 They also hold significance to humans, instantly recognisable by their uniquely large ears and long trunk, and admired for their familial bonds, incredible memory, and ability to show emotion and empathy – in many ways similar to humans. They feature in human culture and religion, and for many communities provide employment through tourism and conservation funding. And yet ironically it is due to humans that their numbers are rapidly declining. African Elephant populations have fallen from an estimated twelve million a hundred years ago to about 400,000 today, and much of this is due to wildlife crime.4
Elephant wildlife crime consists of poaching – illegally killing elephants – primarily to trade and traffic the ivory from their tusks.5 In 1989, the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) banned the international commercial trade in elephant ivory, and in 2018, China banned domestic trade of elephant ivory.6 Furthermore, community and NGO initiatives work towards anti-poaching through training and education, not only to locals on how to monitor elephants, but also internationally to help identify illegally trafficked ivory products. TRAFFIC, the international wildlife trade monitoring network, also manages the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS) to record and track trading routes.7 However, despite all this action, African elephant numbers still decline as market purchases of ivory increase. The fact that the CITES ban wasn’t effective demonstrates the need for further regulation, perhaps stepping away from command-and-control mechanisms such as these and moving towards community and market-based regulations.
Bibliography:
Nyumba, Tobias Ochieng, Nankini Elizabeth Kimongo, and Nigel Leader-Williams, ‘Measuring the conservation attitudes of local communities towards the African elephant Loxodonta Africana, a flagship species in the Mara ecosystem’ PLoS One, 16.6 (2021) <https://uoelibrary.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/measuring-conservation-attitudes-local/docview/2544451196/se-2> (accessed 30 October 2025).
Van de Water, Antoinette., et al., ‘The value of elephants: A pluralist approach’, Ecosystem Services, 58 (2022) <https://www-sciencedirect-com.uoelibrary.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S2212041622000845#kg005> [accessed 30 October 2025]
World Wildlife Fund, Elephants (2025) <https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/elephant/#:~:text=Elephants%20help%20maintain%20forest%20and,for%20tadpoles%20and%20other%20organisms.> [accessed 30 October 2025]
Legal Mechanisms of Redress for Illegal Fisheries Under English Law (Ellie Tresidder)
Introduction
One environmental harm within the jurisdiction of England and Wales is illegal fisheries. Harm to the environment is assessed using the impacts that it may have to both the environment and human health1. Furthermore, the degree of harm and time scale is also considered when determining the level of risk2. Illegal fisheries are often defined as IUU, which the European Council defines as ‘Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing’3.Consequently, this practice causes ‘major threat to marine ecosystems’4.The seriousness of this eco- crime has recently been recognised internationally. For example, the United Nations’ sustainable development goals in 14(4) states that there should be a stop to ‘illegal’ and ‘destructive’ fishing 5.Therefore, this issue will be even more relevant in years to come.
Mechanisms for Prevention and Relevant Redress
There are various statutory instruments that restrict the were and how fish can be caught in the English Legal system. For example, in public law there are several statutes and by laws that can apply to this area of law. The Sea Fishing (Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing) Order 2009 under article 9 s.9 ss.5 makes it an offence to ‘tranship’ fish or be in ‘joint operations’ with an IUU vessel 6. Clearly, the UK government for many years has created legislation with the purpose of limiting the number of fish that are illegally caught. Moreover, IUU is extremely profitable as it is estimated to be worth ‘£10 to £20 billion a year’7. Resultingly, there needs to be greater methods of deterrence than those created by traditional command and control systems. The UK government has taken a proactive approach to this type of environmental harm as they have decided to take a pledge under ‘IUU Fishing Action Alliance’ to demonstrate this commitment8.
Bibliography
GOV.UK, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing Action Alliance Pledge’ (GOV.UK, 8 July 2024) <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing-action-alliance-pledge/illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing-action-alliance-pledge>
Lexis Nexis, ‘Significant Harm Definition’ (Lexis Nexis, 2025) <https://www.lexisnexis.co.uk/legal/glossary/significant-harm> accessed 30 October 2025
Popescu M and Popescu P, ‘Extended Curvatures and Lie Algebroids’ (2022) 14 Symmetry 1375
The Global Goals, ‘Goal 14: Life below Water’ (The Global Goals2024) <https://globalgoals.org/goals/14-life-below-water/>
United Nations, The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,(27 September 2015), A/RES/70/1
Secondary Legislation
The Sea Fishing (Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing) Order 2009, SI 2009/No. 3391
Protecting Antarctica through improved regulation (Sophia O’Hagan)
Antarctica is one of Earth’s few global commons, left untouched, where few people are permitted to set foot (authorised scientists are most commonly allowed). However, some of Antarctica’s most notable risks of harm happen without ever setting foot on land. These are climate change and overfishing. With Antarctica relying on international treaties, it is not developed enough, as vulnerabilities have grown, compared to how they would if it were one’s own country. Therefore, Antarctica has been made increasingly vulnerable.
Redressing climate change in Antarctica is complicated due to a variety of feedback loops, for example, the albedo effect and CO2 stored in ice sheets, as well as ice sheets melting, accompanied by a lack of regulatory authority. Not just Antarctica, but all surroundings require protection; the southern ocean takes up 40% of the global ocean uptake of carbon dioxide (Sabine, C.L, 2004 )1. Conveying how the Earth has natural mechanisms of protection, but legal/regulatory mechanisms are needed to limit human influence on the natural feedback loop. Current protection from climate change comes from the Antarctic Treaty System, significant as it bans exploitation for its natural resources (coal, oil and gas) under article 7 (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2016)2. There is little climate change protection, just the same level as the rest of the world, the Conferences of the Parties (CoP) and the Paris Agreement. Moreover, climate change in Antarctica is a particularly vulnerable cause, and with further command and control regulation can be limited further.
Overfishing is a further vulnerability of Antarctica, but it is much better protected. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) have established the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica as a Whale sanctuary and prohibits commercial whaling (whale sanctuaries and marine protected areas, n.d)3 ; however, being able to identify those who breach this is difficult. As well as the overfishing of Krill has been a large vulnerability, as average density north of 60 degrees has decreased by around 70% (Kawaguchi et al, 2023)4. To combat this, stricter regulations on fishing have been put in place by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Life (Fisheries | CCAMLR, 2017)5.
References in order of appearance
Advertisements Drive Environmentally Destructive Behaviours (Georgie Brown)
Overconsumption is the lived reality of the 21st century. Although it properly took off a mere forty years ago, it has come to dominate every aspect of every continent in the modern day.[1] In the UK, consumer spending more than doubled in the years between 1985 to 2015 whereas the population only increased by 15%.[2] This drastic increase strongly indicates a shift in mindset that individuals hold, a mindset that is driven by the need for material goods in a way never seen before.
This is not to say that people have never prized their possessions. An excellent example of this can be seen on the Titanic. Third class passengers hesitated to leave their baggage behind on the ship – a heavy nod to how highly they viewed their belongings.[3] Yet, in the present, this relationship between human and object has completely overturned.
Advertising is the main driver of overconsumption and has been dubbed by the Ministry for the Climate Emergency Campaigns as “brain pollution”.[4] They argue that our perception of new goods and waste has become distorted by the normalisation of high carbon goods and services such as those of commodities and the transportation sector.[4] The answer to this problem has to balance two key factors: the protection of business and the economy whilst also changing the behaviours and attitudes of consumers and producers. I propose that: firstly, to implement a polluter pays system where companies which produce high carbon adverts pay for the consequential damage that is caused, which could be solved by charging a higher rate of VAT for those adverts and secondly, a government led public awareness campaign run on social media by relevant influencers to encourage viewers to question the way in which they consume.
[1] Alan Durning, ‘Limiting Consumption: Toward a Sustainable Culture’, The Futurist (Washington: World Future Society, 1991), 10
[2] Daniel Harai, ‘Consumer Spending: 10 ways it’s changed in 30 years’, House of Commons Library, 2016 <https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/consumer-spending-10-ways-its-changed-in-30-years/> [accessed 28 October 2025]
[3] Tom Holland, and Dominic Sandbrook, ‘Titanic: Nightmare at Midnight’, The Rest is History, 19 March 2024, <https://podcasts.apple.com/gb/podcast/titanic-nightmare-at-midnight-part-5/id1537788786?i=1000648364434> [accessed 28 October 2024]
[4] ‘Brain Pollution Briefing’, Badvertising, (2021) <https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ebd0080238e863d04911b51/t/6151da65c59ffa6574e58dc5/1632754278674/Brain_pollution_briefing_lower_res_final.pdf> [accessed 28 October 2025]
Further references:
Kasser, Tim, with Tricarico, Emilie, Boyle, David, and, Simms, Andrew, Advertising’s role in climate and ecological degradation (Badvertisements, 2020) <https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ebd0080238e863d04911b51/t/5fbfcb1408845d09248d4e6e/1606404891491/Advertising%E2%80%99s+role+in+climate+and+ecological+degradation.pdf> [accessed 28 October 2025]
Simms, Andrew, ‘The advertising industry is fuelling climate disaster, and it’s getting away with it’, The Guardian, 11 October 2021
Addressing Water Pollution and Ecosystem Decline in Lake District, UK (Lucinda Norris)
Water pollution is currently posing a significant environmental harm to glistening waters in the Lake District (Veisoglu, 2024). Scaife (2019) highlights that the three main factors contributing to this decrease in water quality are agricultural runoff, sewage treatment plants, and stormwater runoff. Resultingly, multiple journals draw on an increase in algal blooms in the Lake District waters due to an increase in water pollution entering the lakes (Veisoglu, 2024). Adverse impacts of algal blooms remove oxygen from water; a low water oxygen concentration results in the decline of aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. Furthermore, high concentrations of cyanobacteria are fatal to people and pets (D’Anglada, 2015). The Lake’s largest pristine lake, “Lake Windermere”, is the greatest sufferer from the increase in water pollution (Moorhouse, 2018). Staniek, a spokesman for “Save Windermere”, displays its cultural and historical significance in his statement “, the jewel in the crown…is used as an open sewer” (Crowley, 2024). The juxtaposition of beauty and neglect creates an urgent need for immediate change to environmental policies. Veisoglu (2024) further highlighted that United Utilities has illegally dumped between 143 and 286 million litres of sewage into Windermere, of which a total of 118 hours were left unreported to the Environmental Regulator. To prevent repetition and long-term environmental damage from the water pollution in the Lakes, command and control and market-based incentives are proposed as legal mechanisms to counteract these environmental issues. Command and Control can enforce policy on illegal dumping under the Environmental Agency, Section 82, Part 5 (Environmental Agency, 2022). Market-based incentives complement command and control by fining offending companies (United Utilities) that violate legal policies written to protect the environment and heritage sites such as Lake Windermere (Porter, 2020). These fines go to water restoration schemes, returning damaged environmental habitats back to their natural beauty (Reed, 2025).
References:
Crowley, J. (2024). Sewage illegally dumped into Windermere repeatedly over 3 years, BBC finds. BBC News. [online] 17 Oct. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdrj70dynk1o [Accessed 27 Oct. 2025].
D’Anglada, L.V. (2015). Editorial on the special issue “harmful algal blooms (HABs) and public health: progress and current challenges”. Toxins, 7(11), pp.4437-4441.
Environmental Agency (2024). Review of Activities Regulated by the Environment Agency, 2022. [online] GOV.UK. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/review-of-activities-regulated-by-the-environment-agency-2022/review-of-activities-regulated-by-the-environment-agency-2022 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2025].
Moorhouse, H.L., McGowan, S., Taranu, Z.E., Gregory‐Eaves, I., Leavitt, P.R., Jones, M.D., Barker, P. and Brayshaw, S.A. (2018). Regional versus local drivers of water quality in the Windermere catchment, Lake District, United Kingdom: The dominant influence of wastewater pollution over the past 200 years. Global Change Biology, 24(9), pp.4009-4022.
Porter, N. (2020). Strategic planning and place branding in a World Heritage cultural landscape: a case study of the English Lake District, UK. European Planning Studies, 28(7), pp.1291-1314.
Reed, S. (2025). Government Ambition to End Sewage Discharges into Windermere. [online] GOV.UK. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-ambition-to-end-sewage-discharges-into-windermere [Accessed 27 Oct. 2025].
Scaife, R. (2019). Extent of Water Pollution in Rivers and Lakes of the English Lake District. [online] Aqua Resources Centre. Available at: https://aquaresources.co.uk/extent-of-water-pollution-in-rivers-and-lakes-of-the-english-lake-district/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2025].
Veisoglu, Z. (2024). Illegal Sewage Dumping in the Lake District Violates More than the Right to Clean Water – HRS. [online] HRS. Available at: https://www.hrsolidarity.org/illegal-sewage-dumping-in-the-lake-district-violates-more-than-the-right-to-clean-water/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2025].
Water Pollution from Agricultural Runoff (Tesni Francis-Parker)
Agricultural runoff is a form of non-point source pollution where excess nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) from fertilisers, sediments, and pesticides wash off farm fields into waterways, primarily after rainfall. This environmental harm is of major concern due to its devastating effects, as it causes eutrophication. Eutrophication is the excessive growth of algae that depletes oxygen in water, killing fish and other aquatic life. Also, it creates “dead zones” in coastal areas, large bodies of water, due to the algae dying and consuming vast amounts of oxygen, which leads to anoxia, where fish and other aerobic aquatic organisms cannot survive, leading to large-scale fish kills. This severely harms biodiversity and leads to poor quality of drinking water. In addition to this, modern agricultural runoff is a significant source of “emerging contaminants” that are not yet widely regulated but pose potential health risks. Runoff from livestock operations can carry antibiotics, steroids, and hormones used in animal production. The presence of antibiotics in the environment contributes to the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, a major global public health concern. This source of pollution must be more regulated. The pollution mechanism is diffuse, making legal regulation and enforcement challenging. This environmental harm focuses on the jurisdiction of the European Union (EU) and its member states. The best way to combat this harm is a policy mix of Legislation, Zoning and Best Management Practices. I think an effective regulation would be establishing mandatory limits on the application of fertilisers and manure, especially in areas designated as vulnerable zones. This would move BMPs from voluntary guidelines to mandatory requirements. Additionally, using Command and Control methods would be effective, as there is a clear distinction between legal and illegal behaviour, making it easy to prove violations and assign liability. I have used many academic papers to support my view such as “Employing Best Management Practices to Reduce Agricultural Water Pollution: Economics, Regulatory Institutions, and Policy Concerns” which discusses that due to the high costs of pollution abatement, achieving significant pollution reduction likely requires some type of government intervention, either through strong regulatory institutions such as Command and Control, or through well-designed financial incentives. Also, I used the paper “Implementing the Water Framework Directive and Tackling Diffuse Pollution from Agriculture: Lessons from England and Scotland”, which discusses how holistic, integrated governance, where governmental bodies mandate changes and ensure effective stakeholder cooperation, is a critical condition for adopting the necessary strict policy instruments required to tackle widespread agricultural diffuse pollution successfully.
Strengthening legal mechanisms to combat deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon; addressing mining and agricultural drivers (Finn Ashford)
The Peruvian amazon is one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, but with ever escalating deforestation primarily driven by illegal mining and agriculture developments, this may cease to exist in the future. Between 2001 and 2014, Peru approximately lost 1.65 million hectares of forest, with a sustained rise in recent years (Finer and Novoa, 2015). In Madre de Dios, informal gold mining alone has caused forest losses exceeding 43,000 ha since 2000 (Finer and Novoa, 2015), accompanied by sever mercury contamination and biodiversity decline (Asner et al., 2013; Swenson et al., 2011). Similarly, agricultural expansion for palm oil and cattle ranching has accelerated forest clearing, with legal loopholes reclassifying forested land as “degraded” or “agricultural” (Environmental Investigation Agency [EIA], 2015). These activities erode ecosystems, emitting large quantities of chemicals and gasses into the environment, whilst simultaneously endangering indigenous territories.
To an existent, Peru has attempted to elevate these environmental issues through legal mechanism and policy frameworks. The Forestry and Wildlife Law (Law No.29763) and the Framework Law on Climate Change (Law No. 30754) establish legal foundations for sustainable forest management and climate governance. But the continuous deforestation highlights the need for further reformations and stronger enforcement. Future reforms could enable a National Anti-Deforestation statute specifically aimed at mining and agriculture through environmental zoning, helping prohibiting land use change in high value conservation areas. Furthermore, through the expansion of indigenous land titling there would be enhanced community participation and forest stewardship, aiding the enforcement of conservation laws. Additionally, a National Traceability Law for gold and other agricultural commodities would reduce the illegal extraction of materials and ensure transparency across the supply chain. Implementation of a model similar to the German Supply chain act (Norton Rose Fulbright, 2024) could reap benefits, creating legal responsibility whilst the improving public information of goods.
Asner, G.P., Llactayo, W., Tupayachi, R. and Luna, E.R., 2013. Elevated rates of gold mining in the Amazon revealed through high-resolution monitoring. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(46), pp.18454–18459.
Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), 2015. Deforestation by Definition: The Peruvian Government Fails to Define Forests as Forests. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Investigation Agency.
Finer, M. and Novoa, S., 2015. MAAP: Patterns and Drivers of Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon. Monitoring of the Andean Amazon Project (MAAP).
Swenson, J.J., Carter, C.E., Domec, J.C. and Delgado, C.I., 2011. Gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon: Global prices, deforestation, and mercury imports. Environmental Research Letters, 6(4), pp.1–7.
Envol Vert, 2023. Peru’s Battle for Amazonian Forests: Controversial Law Amendment Threatens Environmental Protection. [online] 8 June. Available at: https://envol-vert.org/en/news/2023/06/perus-battle-for-amazonian-forests-controversial-law-amendment-threatens-environmental-protection/ [Accessed 21 October 2025].
Climate Laws Organisation, 2018. Framework Law No. 30754 on Climate Change. [online] Available at: https://climate-laws.org/document/framework-law-no-30754-on-climate-change_688f [Accessed 21 October 2025]. Norton Rose Fulbright, 2024. The German Supply Chain Act: Overview and the Practical Challenges for Companies. [online] Available at: https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/ff7c1d04/the-german-supply-chain-act [Accessed 21 October 2025].