On this page you will find the concepts of the reports our students are planning to submit at the end of in the Environmental Regulation & Redress (Cornwall) module in 2024/25.
Reining in Fast Fashion: The Role of Environmental Regulation in Curbing the Industryâs Ecological Impact (Isabelle Teh-Bennett)
The fashion industry has undergone a huge shift in recent decades, driven by the rise of “fast fashion” â a business model based on rapidly producing inexpensive, trend-driven clothing to meet insatiable consumer demand. This relentless cycle of transient styles and mass production has led to a staggering 400% increase in global fashion consumption over the last two decades. Consequently, the industry now accounts for approximately 10% of global carbon emissions (Feldstein, 2023), marking it as a significant contributor to climate change.
The environmental impact of fast fashion is ever growing and multifaceted. Every stage of production â from raw material extraction to manufacturing and distribution â is producing waste and pollution. The industry’s water-intensive processes deplete and contaminate water sources, while its large supply chains endanger wildlife habitats. Perhaps most alarmingly, of the 100 billion garments produced annually, an estimated 92 billion end up in landfills (Igini, 2023), highlighting the wasteful nature of current consumption patterns.
With global emissions from the fashion industry projected to surge by 50% by 2030 (Igini, 2023), the urgency for decisive action has never been greater. The United Kingdom, as a major fashion market and influencer, has an important role to play in addressing this crisis. While the UK has taken initial steps with the Environment Act 2021 (Legislation.Gov.UK, 2021), which provides a broad framework for environmental protection, it has yet to implement specific regulations targeting the fast fashion industry.
This report aims to chart a course for effective UK regulation by evaluating successful regulatory frameworks implemented in other countries. France, for instance, has proposed a groundbreaking fashion bill that incorporates extended producer responsibility (EPR) and economic penalties for non-compliance (Canali, 2024). This approach forces brands to take accountability for their products throughout their lifecycle. In the United States, individual states like California have made significant strides with legislation, such as the Responsible Textile Recovery Act (Garno & Yuan, 2024), which aims to enhance textile recycling and reduce waste.
Beyond regulatory measures, this report will explore market-based mechanisms that can influence consumer behaviour and promote sustainable practices. Eco-labelling initiatives, for example, can serve as a powerful tool by providing consumers with transparent information about the environmental impact of their purchases, thereby encouraging more responsible shopping habits. Additionally, this report will explore the implementation of command-and-control mechanisms to drive sustainability in the fashion industry. For example, environmental taxes could create powerful financial incentives for both consumers and manufacturers to prioritize sustainability.
By learning from global practices and examining new strategies, the UK has the opportunity to take meaningful steps toward mitigating the detrimental effects of fast fashion. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of these approaches, ultimately aiming to propose recommendations for the UK to establish a sustainable and responsible fashion industry.
References:
1. Canali, M. (2024, April 30). Fashion Sustainability in France- Andersen Italy. Andersen Italy. https://it.andersen.com/en/france-goes-sustainable-in-fashion/
2. Feldstein, S. (2023). At What Cost? Unravelling the Harms of the Fast Fashion Industry. Center for Biological Diversity. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/sustainability/fast_fashion
3. Garno, D., & Yuan, V. (2024). A Closer Look at Californiaâs Recently Passed Responsible Textile Recovery Act of 2024 | Insights | Holland & Knight. Hklaw.com. https://www.hklaw.com/en/insights/publications/2024/10/a-closer-look-at-californias-recently-passed-responsible
4. Igini, M. (2023, August 21). 10 concerning Fast Fashion Waste Statistics. Earth.org. https://earth.org/statistics-about-fast-fashion-waste/
5. Legislation.Gov.UK. (2021). Environment Act 2021. Legislation.gov.uk. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30
Overfishing and Tuna Stock Depletion in the North Atlantic (Rhona Maclennan)
(Jurisdiction: International Waters)
Overfishing has caused significant reductions in tuna populations, particularly affecting species such as the Atlantic bluefin and yellowfin tuna, thereby critically endangering these species and destabilizing the broader marine ecosystem. As apex predators, tuna are integral to maintaining equilibrium within the marine food web, playing a vital role in both ecological balance and the fishing industry. Intense market demand, insufficient regulation in international waters and economic incentives have led to the extensive overexploitation of tuna stocks. Tuna populations have decreased by approximately 60% over the past 50 years, resulting in ecological imbalance and jeopardizing economic sustainability of fishing industries. To tackle the overfishing crisis, a range of regulatory and legal measures have been implemented or proposed.
International frameworks, like the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), implement command-and-control regulations to mandate sustainable fishing practices and establish conservation standards in international waters. These frameworks set quotas and seasonal restrictions, leading to some stock stabilization, though recovery is slow due to enforcement challenges and economic incentives to overfish.
Market-based mechanisms, such as tradable fishing quotas and certifications like those from the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), incentivize fishers to embrace sustainable practices by providing economic benefits for compliance, effectively aligning economic interests with ecological goals.
Community governance and adaptive law are crucial frameworks, especially with climate change. Adaptive legal mechanisms offer flexibility needed to manage resources throughout changing environmental conditions, like alterations in tuna migration due to ocean warming. Evidence shows that community-led initiatives, supported by NGOs, enhance regulatory efforts through collective enforcement and conservation.
Private law and criminal redress mechanisms further reinforce these efforts by penalizing unsustainable fishing practices. By imposing liability for environmental harm, these frameworks act as a deterrent against illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing. Studies show that well-enforced criminal penalties and civil actions effectively reduce IUU practices and enhance compliance among commercial fishers.
Regulatory tools for managing fisheries, such as output and input controls, monitoring technologies and marine reserves should be further implemented.
Conserving tuna stocks requires international collaboration among regulatory bodies, enforcement agencies, and community stakeholders. Effective strategies include quota systems, community governance, and adaptive legal frameworks to support recovery through consistent enforcement. Integrating adaptive law, command-and-control measures, market-based incentives and criminal redress creates a robust framework against overfishing. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) warns that tuna stocks remain vulnerable, highlighting the need for international cooperation to preserve tuna and the marine ecosystem.
Effective management of tuna fisheries relies on integrating scientific data with legal frameworks, considering breeding cycles and recovery rates. This approach involves legal data collection, humane handling, and adaptive conservation measures with target and limit reference points. Compliance with international standards is essential for sustainable fishing. Laws should adapt to new scientific insights, encouraging research to fill data gaps. As stocks recover, regulations can be adjusted to sustainably increase catch limits without harming ecological health. Continuous stakeholder alignment is vital to prevent legal
disputes and exploitation of loopholes.
Neonicotinoids and their environmental damage (Megan Davies)
Neonicotinoids are a type of synthetic pesticide used to protect crops from sap-feeding insects (Bass, 2018). Reports made by French beekeepers in 1990, European bee research conference and extreme losses of bee colonies (Carreck, 2016) sparked concerns around the use of neonicotinoids within the UK and EU. Countless studies (Goulson, 2013; Bonmartin, 2014; Sanchez-Bayo 2016) have continued to demonstrate the harm this pesticide has on pollinators, invertebrates and other non-target organisms through direct or non-direct contact (Bonmartin, 2014). Particularly, the part they played in colony collapse disorder within honey bees (Jactel, 2019) and commercial formulas creating a 30-40% mortality rate in bees (Siviter, 2021). Existing literature also highlights damage to surrounding habitats (Bonmartin, 2014), contamination of water sources due to leeching (Goulson, 2013) and potential toxicity to humans (Zeng, 2013). In 2016, the French government banned the use of five neonicotinoids (Demortain, 2021) â a blanket regulatory action that is not usually seen within substance regulation (Demortain, 2021). Despite similar bans spanning almost the entirety of the EU since 2013 (Jactel, 2019; BBC, 2022), the UK have allowed emergency authorisation of these pesticides for four years consecutively (BBC,2024). A similar ban could be enforced within the UK to reduce the harmful effects of this pesticide on the environment. The ban in the EU has forced farmers to use alternatives (Bass,2018). However, a blanket ban would not address the need for neonicotinoids in very specific cases such as the 4% of uses that do not currently have a substitute (Jactel, 2019), and would result in significant crop loss. Therefore, a more feasible legislation may be enforcing permits and/or licenses. In Ghana, pesticide clearance permits allow the importation and use of banned or restricted pesticides (Kwakeye, 2018), however, it may be hard to ensure these permits are being used legally. To deal with this, post licensing observations could be enforced to ensure license holders are only using the substance in the permitted ways. Market-based mechanisms are also worth considering. Using subsidies to encourage research and use of alternatives is another market-based mechanism worth exploring. The farming industry vowed to find an alternative by the end of 2023 (BBC, 2024). Despite this vow not being met, substantial research has been done to uncover many alternatives to neonicotinoids (Jactel, 2019). Monetary rewards or incentives for farmers exploring the use of these alternatives may encourage the industry to move towards more environmentally friendly pesticides/ crop protection methods.
Loss of biodiversity in Antarctica and possible regulation methods (Oliver Burridge)
Introduction
What was once thought of as a wilderness untouched by mankind, is now under threat from a number of forces which have placed its biodiversity at risk â recent work has shown that conservation trajectories in Antarctica are similar to those globally[1]. Human activity is the most significant threat to fauna and flora in Antarctica, this includes activities such as tourism, fishing and whaling, and the mining of minerals[2]; these activities entail several smaller-scale, more specific problems, like biological invasions[3], which also place the biodiversity of Antarctica at dire risk. Despite the fact that around 44% of species are found in one or more of Antarcticaâs protected areas, this protection is biased toward easily detectable and protectable species such as seabirds. Furthermore, a higher standard of protection amongst a wider degree of species is required to ensure that Antarcticaâs biodiversity decreases even further[4].
Possible mechanisms of prevention/redress
As a global common, there is difficulty when it comes to regulating Antarctica as this requires cooperation between a number of states. Moreover, these states must work together on a number of issues which all have significant impacts on Antarcticaâs biodiversity:
Tourism
Overfishing
[1] Steven L. Chown., et al, Antarctica and the strategic plan for biodiversity (PLoS Biol 2017)
[2] Heiner Kubny, âThe six threats to Antarcticaâ (Polar Journal, 16 March 2023)
[3] Eduardo Amaro., et al, Assessing trace element contamination in Fildes Peninsula (King George Island) and Ardley Island, Antarctica (2015) 97(1-2) ScienceDirect
[4] Hannah S. Wauchope, Justine D. Shaw & Aleks Terauds, A snapshot of biodiversity protection in Antarctica (2019) Nature Communications
[5] Susanna Gough, âTourism visitor numbers in Antarctica have risen to over 100,000 a yearâ (Geographical, 6 August 2023)
[6] âHuman Impacts on Antarctica and Threats to the Environment â Whaling and Sealingâ (Cool Antarctica)
Plastic problem in the UK (Purdy Blane)
There is nowhere on Earth where plastic cannot be found. Winding its way up in every sphere on our planet: our soils, riverways, mountain ranges, with even the most remote place on our planet Point Nemo, in the Pacific Ocean, being dubbed a âspacecraft cemeteryâ (De Lucia and Iavicoli, 2018). With the oceans predicted to contain more plastic than fish by the year 2050 (Kurtela and AntoloviÄ, 2019) this is the largest-scale environmental problem that we share globally.
Plastic is a by-product of the oil industry, a problematic billion-dollar industry moving carbon from the long-term to the short-term carbon cycle; a process that naturally only occurs through long term changes to the earth’s crust such as volcanic eruptions and tectonic movements. Plastic is a polymer of hydrocarbon chains, which have been chemically altered, meaning they are not biodegradable, and take hundreds of years to be broken down. The alternative way of disposing of plastic consists of combusting it, which releases toxic gases into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution and the greenhouse effect.
Currently plastic is used in every industry due to its unique properties such as being a low cost, versatile, waterproof, sterile and durable material. Increased consumerism means the demand for it is on the rise with devastating environmental repercussions. Current laws in the UK are mainly targeted towards single use plastic items. Some items such as single-use cutlery are outright banned under a command-and-control mechanism whilst some items such as single-use plastic bags come at a cost of at least 10p to deter people from buying them (Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 2015), a market-based mechanism. So far since 2015 this law has had a positive impact reducing plastic bags in supermarkets by 86% (Sutherland and Priestley, 2019). This, whilst preventing thousands of tons of single-use plastic bags entering landfills, does not acknowledge the main source of the issue: plastic packaging. The plastic packaging law passed in April 2022 taxes UK businesses over ÂŁ200 per tonne of plastic packaging produced (Pow, 2023), however, this tax is only applicable if the packaging does not contain at least 30% recycled plastic. This does not act as a significant enough deterrent, encouraging only mild recycling of packaged materials only. Other forms of plastic are not even taken into consideration in UK laws. The fast fashion industry is a prime example. Fast fashion items are made up of synthetic fibers such as polyester which are derived from plastic and the UK imports millions of items of fast fashion clothing annually. The low prices and bad quality materials means items have a short lifespan, encouraging consumers to buy larger quantities of this plastic clothing. Every 5 minutes 10,000 items of clothing are thrown out (Keep Britain Tidy, 2015) and either go to a landfill or to be burnt, totaling a staggering 300,000 tonnes per year (Abelvik-Lawson, 2020).
All plastic in the UK should be banned or heavily taxed. Single use plastic bags should be banned alongside other single-use plastic items. Reusable bags should be sold as a substitute for a similar price, at least 10p, forcing all consumers to make this transition to stop the production and importation of single use plastic bags entirely in the UK. The plastic packaging law should be amended to tax companies unless 100% of their packaging is from recycled plastic. All plastic sources, from the fashion to the electronics sector should be taxed heavily, discouraging consumption and acting as an incentive to buy items from recycled or biodegradable sources.
ââThe tree of lifeââ. Legal mechanisms to combat deforestation of baobab trees. (Jaime Allport)
Baobab trees are ecologically, culturally, and economically significant across many parts of Africa. Known as the “Tree of Life,” baobabs play a vital role in local ecosystems, providing resources and benefits that support biodiversity and human communities. Baobabs are a keystone species. They have large water storing trunks that sustain wildlife and local communities during dry seasons, while their flowers attract pollinators such as bats, birds, and bees, supporting local ecosystems. These trees also offer food and shelter to various animals and create microhabitats that allow other plants and organisms to thrive. Additionally, baobabs also have several medicinal benefits, such as the roots, bark, and leaf have high antiviral and antimicrobial activities. The loss of baobabs could potentially destabilize these ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss and ecological collapse. However, despite the importance of these trees, they are being illegally deforested. Deforestation of baobabs mainly takes place for agricultural expansion, economic gains from timber and infrastructure development. Command-and-control approaches, such as prohibiting logging in certain areas and enforcing stricter penalties for illegal deforestation, could act as deterrents. Market-based mechanisms, such as financial incentives for communities to engage in sustainable harvesting or conservation, could also foster economic benefits while preserving baobab populations. Moreover, promoting community engagement in conservation programs and supporting reforestation initiatives could further enhance protection efforts. This report will explore these legal frameworks, emphasizing the need for a balanced approach that integrates ecological sustainability with the socio-economic realities of communities relying on these vital trees.
Enforcing the Amazon Forest Code (Maya Farmer)
The Amazon has a critical role in regulating climate change and hosts 10% of the worldâs biodiversity[1]. Most deforestation that occurs there is illegal. There is a zero goal for deforestation in the Amazon[2]. 17% of the Amazon has been deforested and when 20% to 25%[3] has been deforested it will be too late to recover. At that point the Amazon will be unable to produce rainfall ultimately leading to it becoming a dry grassland.
However, there are limited incentives for landowners to prevent deforestation. Currently, there is a Forest Code, which is a command and control approach. This is law that requires landowners to maintain 35% to 80% of their property[4]. However, this limits how much of the land the landowners can actually farm. Consequently, it is not necessarily financially beneficial to be a landowner in the Amazon. The Forest Code has also been difficult to enforce due to the size of the Amazon compared to the size of the resources that can be used to enforce the law. Further still there are only clear ownership records for 10% of private land in the Amazon[5].
However, from studies that have been conducted there has been success with market-based programs that offer financial incentives to private landowners to not deforest their land. There were three reasons for enrolment in the market-based scheme that the local preferred be called forest conservation incentives (FCIs). A study was carried out in the Ecuadorian Amazon. The main reasons for enrolment in a FIC was the alternative source of income it provided.
While there was success with the scheme it had a minimal impact. Annual deforestation rates fell on an average by 56% to 76% on the lands enrolled on the scheme[6]. The problem is the low number of landowners at 7% who are enrolled in the scheme[7]. This was because of the strictness, misinformation and lack of information of the FCIs. Many landowners feared the scheme was a ploy by the government to take possession of the land[8].
Overall, this leads to there being a need for a hybrid regulatory system using both market-based and command and control regulations. The Forest Code is useful and is a law that can be enforced, though enforcement is lacking. To be able to enforce the Forest Code the government should focus on establishing clear ownership for the remaining 90% of private land[9] in the Amazon through a task force. Once this is completed then the Forest code can be enforced to a greater extent and there would be greater ease in monitoring deforestation rates across the Amazon. However, this command and control approach to regulating Amazonian deforestation should be used in conjunction with market-based schemes such as FCIs. In which there should be a focus on minimising the information gap. This would hopefully increase the enrolment rate and thus see a decrease in deforestation. A final regulation is another market-based scheme focusing on preventing illegal deforestation by third parties.
[1] Marcelo CC Stabile and others, âSlowing Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon : Avoiding Legal Deforestation by Compensating Farmers and Ranchersâ (2022) 4 Frontiers in Forests and Global Change <https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2021.635638/full> accessed 4 November 2024.
[2] âAmazon Rainforest: Deforestation Rate Halved in 2023â BBC News (12 January 2024) <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-67962297> accessed 4 November 2024.
[3] âDeforestation in the Amazonâ (Amazon Conservation Association) <https://www.amazonconservation.org/the-challenge/threats/> accessed 4 November 2024.
[4] âAmazon Forest Codeâ (The Nature Conservancy) <https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/latin-america/brazil/stories-in-brazil/brazils-forest-code/> accessed 4 November 2024.
[5] ibid.
[6] âForest Conservation Incentives and Deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon | Environmental Conservation | Cambridge Coreâ <https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/forest-conservation-incentives-and-deforestation-in-the-ecuadorian-amazon/2D5B57FF9FB64DEC6EEE05C953447ACE> accessed 4 November 2024.
[7] ibid.
[8] ibid.
[9] âAmazon Forest Codeâ (n 4).
Implementing Low Emission Zones as a positive step toward cleaner air in Manchester (Abigail Atkinson)
Air pollution is an ever-important issue in urban areas. It affects the air people breathe every day. Emissions from cars, vans and trucks release harmful chemicals and pollutants into the atmosphere, harming our lungs, hearts, and the environment as a whole. Poor air quality has strong links to many respiratory diseases, cardiovascular conditions, and premature deaths within the local population1. Referring to the Greater Manchester Clean Air Plan 2022, It’s estimated that around 1,200 people in Greater Manchester lose their lives prematurely each year due to air pollution, not to mention the impact on children, the elderly, and those with health conditions2. Itâs important this issue is addressed as Manchester is already densely populated with heavy traffic and the population is predicted to increase in the future causing increased emissions from vehicles which has results in further poor air quality, harms public health, and exacerbates climate change3.
One strategy for redress could be implementing a Low Emission Zone, which are areas where only vehicles that meet certain emission standards are allowed. These zones work by charging or restricting access for higher-polluting vehicles, encouraging people to switch to cleaner options or alternative transport like cycling and public transit. This is a market based mechanism and aligns with the previous Greater Manchester Clean Air Zone initiative, which classifies emission standards for various vehicles and enforces compliance through charges for non-compliant vehicles and as a whole aims to encourage a shift toward cleaner vehicle use and alternative transportation modes, resulting in long-term air quality improvement4.
Studies across Europe have shown that Low Emission Zones can effectively reduce air pollutant levels. Holman et al found significant reductions in NOâ levels in cities with Low Emission Zones, with one meta-analysis suggesting an average NOâ decrease of approximately 4-8% in these areas5. Londonâs Ultra Low Emission Zone led to a 36% drop in roadside NOâ levels within its first six months6. Prior to being under review in 2024, the previous initial models for Manchesterâs Clean Air Zone suggested a potential reduction in NOâ levels by up to 24% over the next decade if people make the shift to compliant vehicles. However, there are socio-economic challenges as local businesses and individuals with older, higher polluting vehicles may struggle with the costs7.
Low Emission Zones are a positive step toward cleaner air in Manchester, and there is strong evidence showing they can make a difference in cities that use them. The Clean Air Zone in Manchester is currently under review but I think it should be reinstated and implemented throughout Manchester.
References:
1 Department for Transport, âTransport and Environment Statistics: 2023â (GOV.UK19 October 2023) <https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/transport-and-environment-statistics-2023/transport-and-environment-statistics-2023>.
2 Clean Air Greater Manchester, âGreater Manchester Clean Air Plan | Clean Air Greater Manchesterâ (Cleanairgm.com2022) <https://cleanairgm.com/clean-air-plan/>.
3 Luis Sarmiento, Nicole WĂ€gner and Aleksandar Zaklan, âThe Air Quality and Well-Being Effects of Low Emission Zonesâ (2023) 227 Journal of Public Economics 105014 <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272723001962>.
4 Public Health England, âClean Air Zone Information | Clean Air Zone Information | Manchester City Councilâ (www.manchester.gov.uk2024) <https://www.manchester.gov.uk/info/200094/taxis_and_private_hire/8309/clean_air_zone_information>
5 Claire Holman, Roy Harrison and Xavier Querol, âReview of the Efficacy of Low Emission Zones to Improve Urban Air Quality in European Citiesâ (2015) 111 Atmospheric Environment 161 <https://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/18559478/Holman_Harrison_Querol_Review_efficacy_low_emission_Atmospheric_Environment_2015.pdf>
6 Public Health England, âHealth Matters: Air Pollutionâ (GOV.UK2018) <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution>
7 Ellison RB, Greaves SP, and Hensher DA, âFive Years of Londonâs Low Emission Zone: Effects on Vehicle Fleet Composition and Air Qualityâ (2020) Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 58, 1-13.
How legal mechanisms can be used to redevelop plastic waste management (Elluize Raybould)
Intro
The management of plastic waste is a global issue which is increasing. Plastic is continually being massed produced in order to meet demands in sectors such as, technology, healthcare infrastructure, agriculture, and packaging (Panizzut et al., 2021). This has negative impacts on the environment such as biodiversity loss, production of toxic gasses and increase microplastics in food (Singh et Sharma, 2015). Recycling and the so-called circular economy could be a possible solution to the plastic waste problem, however it is not yet implemented or carried out effectively enough (Burgess et al., 2021).
Sustainability
Single use plastics are a large problem when it comes to sustainability. Sustainability is the idea that resources will be maintained and preserved for future generations. Capitalism and consumerism get in the way of this, because as the demand for novelty and temporally used products increase, so does resource extraction and environmental degradation (Gedde et al., 2021). Globalisation has also caused increase in single use plastics as they are cheap and easy to access and convenient for packaging of food due to their nondegradable properties. On top of this plastics that can be recycled are not done so to the fullest potential.
Currently in the UK recycling is between 45% and 47% (Oluwadipe et al., 2022).
Imposing legal mechanisms for the producers, consumers, and waste processors
In terms of industrial production waste, the Finnish Waste Act (2012) should be looked at as an example for using by-products of industry to create new products that meet existing regulations. In Finland recovery operations are undergone to ensure that the product reaches a certain criterion, such as it non-hazardous and functional, to be no longer considered as waste (LevĂ€nen, 2015). This is the concept of âCircular economyâ which is an EU strategy, using by-products as raw materials to create new profitable items (Burgess et al., 2021).
Large governmental organisations such as DEFRA monitor the annual results of local authorities recycling rates (Oluwadipe et al., 2022). However, 391 local authorities use 39 different types of collection methods (Burgess et al., 2021). Differences across the nation in district policies undermines the UKs target to reach the 65% recycling goal for 2035, which was set up by resource and waste strategy for England in 2018 (Oluwadipe et al., 2022). In order for this to happen physical changes in collection process and recycling facilities will need to take place. As well as a general shift in societies attitude towards sustainability, which can be done by raising awareness and communicating with other countries for solutions. Furthermore, legal mechanisms for regulating how producers operate and what retailers buy, such as taxations on single use plastics and raw materials, should be considered.
References:
Burgess, M., Holmes, H., Sharmina, M. and Shaver, M.P., 2021. The future of UK plastics recycling: one bin to rule them all.âŻResources, Conservation and Recycling,âŻ164, p.105191.
Gedde, U.W., Hedenqvist, M.S., Hakkarainen, M., Nilsson, F., Das, O., Gedde, U.W., Hedenqvist, M.S., Hakkarainen, M., Nilsson, F. and Das, O., 2021. Plastics and sustainability.âŻApplied polymer science, pp.489-504.
LevĂ€nen, J., 2015. Ending waste by law: institutions and collective learning in the development of industrial recycling in Finland.âŻJournal of cleaner production,âŻ87, pp.542-549.
Oluwadipe, S., Garelick, H., McCarthy, S. and Purchase, D., 2022. A critical review of household recycling barriers in the United Kingdom.âŻWaste Management & Research,âŻ40(7), pp.905-918.
Panizzut, N., Rafi-ul-Shan, P.M., Amar, H., Sher, F., Mazhar, M.U. and KlemeĆĄ, J.J., 2021. Exploring relationship between environmentalism and consumerism in a market economy society: A structured systematic literature review.âŻCleaner Engineering and Technology,âŻ2, p.100047.
Singh, P. and Sharma, V.P., 2016. Integrated plastic waste management: environmental and improved health approaches.âŻProcedia Environmental Sciences,âŻ35, pp.692-700.
Water pollution in the Tiete River (Charlotte Gray)
The Tiete river is approximately 1,100 kilometres long and one of the most important rivers in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, playing a crucial role in the economy and environment of the region (Cesso, 2024). For several decades the Tiete River has been heavily polluted due to industrial waste, sewage and agricultural runoff decreasing the water quality and biodiversity. This has significantly impacted the environment and public health due to pollutants untreated wastewater from major cities such as Sao Paulo leading to high levels of faecal coliform bacteria and other harmful pollutants(Ecohubmap, 2024).
Despite previous investment to help the river , many projects have received little attention since they were implemented. The Tiete River Project is the largest ingoing sanitation project within Latin America and is set into four stages over 25 years with a total investment projected at $5 billion USD(Arcadis, n.d.). However, due to the ongoing rapid urbanisation of major metropolitan areas along the river many of these schemes arenât able to keep with the increase in waste. The SOS Mata Atlantica Foundation published a report showing that pollution slick on a monitored section rose by 40% from 2021 to 2022(Maciel, 2022). In 2023 an area has been befouled by phosphate and phosphorus residues from household detergents from the 22 million residents of Sao Paulo and washed down the sewer, causing a layer of toxic foam to form. This was very common in the 1990s but investment in water treatment have alleviated the problem but som years are worst than others. The NGO SOS Mata Atantica are calling for a ban on phosphate and phosphorus in domestic cleaning product(ALMEIDA, 2023) this command and control policy would have a huge impact on the rivers water quality and other countries like UK already have bans and regulations on detergents following the EU Detergents Regulation that came into force in the EU in 2005(HSE , n.d.).
Stricter bans and regulations on harmful pollutants such as phosphate and phosphorus would drastically start to improve the water quality in the Tiete River, having the data from other countries that have already implemented these bans will help in forming their policies and guidelines. Both command and control and community governance from NGOs are vital in reducing pollution in the Tiete River due to the scale of the problem.
References:
ALMEIDA, N. (2023, June 13). Toxic foam blights river crucial to Brazilâs biggest city. Phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2023-07-toxic-foam-blights-river-crucial.html
Arcadis. (n.d.). The Tiete River Project. Arcadis. Retrieved November 2, 2024, from https://www.arcadis.com/en-gb/projects/latin-america/brazil/tiete-river-project
Cesso, T. (2024, June 21). What is Tiete River? Brazilcore. https://brazilcore.com/glossario/what-is-tiete-river/
Ecohubmap. (2024). Water pollution Tiete River, Brazil: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions. Www.ecohubmap.com. https://www.ecohubmap.com/hot-spot/water-pollution-tiete-river-brazil/7s3tklfr4pd2p
HSE . (n.d.). Detergents: Great Britain. Www.hse.gov.uk. https://www.hse.gov.uk/detergents/detergents-guidance.htm
Maciel, C. (2022, September 23). Pollution slick on SĂŁo Pauloâs biggest river up 40% in one year. AgĂȘncia Brasil. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/en/geral/noticia/2022-09/sos-mata-atlantica-tiete-river-pollution-patch-grows-40
The Environmental Impact of Unsustainable Production of Palm Oil in Southeast Asia (Jelly Young)
A short introduction to the production of palm oil:
Palm oil is a type of vegetable oil extracted from the fruit of the oil palm tree, primarily the African Palm, Elaeis guineensis species, native to West Africa. Although it is cultivated worldwide, production is primarily in the tropical regions, Indonesia and Malaysia. Due to its high demand, palm oil constitutes 56% of imported vegetable oil globally (Shahbandeh, 2023). valued for its high yield per hectare and versatility, it is used in foods, cosmetics, and biofuels. Palm oil is of high economic importance, providing employment in developing countries, and serving as an important exported commodity.
Although palm oil offers many benefits, its production raises significant environmental and sustainability concerns. High global demand has driven expansion of palm oil plantations, often at the expense of tropical rainforests. This deforestation results in extensive biodiversity loss, threatening species and habitats as diverse ecosystems are replaced with monoculture oil palm plantations. Additionally, the tropical peatlands which store large amounts of carbon, are often cleared as well for these plantations. By disturbing the peatlands, they release significant amounts of stored carbon that contributes to global greenhouse gases (GHG), ultimately exacerbating climate change.
Indication of possible mechanisms of prevention and/or redress:
Action has been taken to promote sustainable palm oil production, leading to the establishment of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) in 2004. The ROSP is a voluntary global membership initiative that encourages companies to implement policies to prevent deforestation and the conversion of natural habitats for plantation expansion. It promotes transparency about the production process of the sourced palm oil and urges companies to buy and use only RSPO-certified palm oil.
In addition The Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) certification was introduced in 2011 by the Indonesian government, and the Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification was implemented in 2015, becoming mandatory in 2020. These certifications aim to promote sustainable practice at the national level. Unlike RSPO, both ISPO and MSPO certifications are mandatory for all palm oil producers, enforcing compliance with environmental laws, prohibiting the expansion of plantations into high conservation value (HCV) forests, ensuring transparency of operations, and addressing other sustainability issues.
References:
Shahbandeh, M. (2023). Import volume vegetable oils worldwide by type 2023/24 | Statista. [online] Statista. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/613191/vegetable-oil-import-volume-worldwide-by-type/ [Accessed 3 Nov. 2024].
Bibliography:
Alhaji, A.M., Almeida, E.S., Carneiro, C.R., da Silva, C.A.S., Monteiro, S. and Coimbra, J.S. dos R. (2024). Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis): A Journey through Sustainability, Processing, and Utilization. Foods, [online] 13(17), p.2814. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172814.
Nusli, H., Muhamad, M.Z., Mustafa, M.M., Vaiapuri, S., Fatah, F.A. and Syahlan, S., 2024. Sustainable Certification in the Oil Palm Industry: A Comparative Analysis of MSPO, RSPO, ISPO and ISCC Schemes. Innovation Centre in Agritechnology for Advanced Bioprocessing (ICA) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Pagoh Campus Johor Darul Takzim, Malaysia, p.26.
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). (n.d.). Our standards. [online] Available at: https://rspo.org/as-an-organisation/our-standards/.
RSPO (2023). Who we are. [online] Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). Available at: https://rspo.org/who-we-are/.
Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T., Mohamed, A.R. and Bhatia, S. (2009). Palm oil: Addressing issues and towards sustainable development. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, [online] 13(2), pp.420â427. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2007.10.001.
World Wildlife Fund (2018). 8 things to know about palm oil. [online] WWF. Available at: https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/8-things-know-about-palm-oil.
Yunus, M. (2024). Governance reform essential to reducing palm oil deforestation. East Asia Forum. doi:https://doi.org/10.59425/eabc.1709805600.
Plastic pollution’s impact on marine ecosystems and the European Unionâs efforts in regulation (Rowan Holloway)
This paper will be exploring the damages caused by plastic pollution on our marine environments, focusing on the European union (EU) and its jurisdictions capabilities on dealing with a global issue. Plastic pollution impacts every part of Marine environment, from affecting nutrient and carbon cycles to the destruction of habitat. Despite various policies and initiatives, the amount of plastic leaking into the oceans continues to increase every year, furthermore these plastics are now having a direct affect on humans as they have entered our food chain and when ingested by people chemicals and environmental toxins enter our bodies.
The EU has set strict goals under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (2008) and the Single-Use Plastics Directive (2019), which aim to mitigate marine pollution by restricting the use of single use plastic products and any unnecessary use of plastic in our society by looking to alternative materials which have less of an impact on the environment. These policies aim to meet sustainability goals under the European Green Deal (2019), intending to reduce waste, enhance recycling practices, and guarantee the protection of 30% of land and marine areas by 2030. However, despite these regulations, plastic pollution continues to increase annually due to challenges with consumer cooperation and limited enforcement capacities, The effectiveness of EU-wide regulations is further impacted by sources of pollution from outside the EU, as ocean currents bring plastics from other jurisdictions into EU waters, highlighting the need for international cooperation.
This report will investigate the current state of plastic pollution in EU marine environments and the affect these regulations have on the amount of plastic being recycled and the amount that ends up in our oceans. Finally, the report will discuss potential changes in policy, focusing on enhanced enforcement, greater producer responsibility, consumer awareness and further international collaboration. The goal is to assess whether current EU measures adequately protect marine ecosystems and explore additional strategies that might get around current challenges and safeguard this vulnerable area of our planet considering the growing plastic waste crisis.
Addressing marine microplastics pollution (Ella Richmond-Pearson)
Problem: Marine microplastics pollution
How law has addressed the issue
How the problem should be addressed/ improvements to current laws
References:
Andrady, A.L. (2011) Microplastics in the marine environment, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(8): 1596-1605)
Hal Open Science (2018) Plastic Pollution in the ocean: what we know and what we donât know about, The Camp, France.
Evans, M.C., et al. (2022) Toward the Detection and Imaging of Ocean Microplastics with a Spaceborne Radar, IEEE transactions on geoscience and remote sensing, 60 (4202707]
MARPOL, 2019
(f) Annex V
The countryside charity (N/A), Litter on or in the sea, accessed 2nd November 2024 <https://www.cpre.org.uk/what-we-care-about/litter-and-recycling/cleaner-countryside/litter-and-the-law/litter-in-water/marine-sea-litter/>
The Case for SapĂn in Britain (Owen Ballantyne)
Michel SapĂn is a French ex-politician, known for his radical changes he made to the procurement for public services and his anti-corruption laws. A member of the socialist party, Minister of the Civil Service and Minister of Finance, he championed sweeping laws to bring the value of public services to the people (Politico.eu, 2024). The reform from the Sapin Law of who owned water in France radically changed the system, improving infrastructure investment and reducing the customer cost. This was through the nationalisation of water and delegating operators to operate the systems, creating competition between operators to be water supplier for a municipality (Loi SapĂn No. 93 â 122, 1993).
The main thing needed for the British water system is an increase in investment, so crumbling infrastructure can be repaired and improved, and raw sewage outflow into waterways caused by overflow in high rain can be prevented.
With environmental redress as motivation, the way in which the government operates with water firms can be transformed. They form natural monopolies in the areas they operate, charging customers high prices but not reinvesting those funds in the aged infrastructure they use to deliver their services, instead passing it onto their foreign shareholders (BBC News, 2024). This crumbling infrastructure then fails during periods of high rainfall, leading to overflows of raw sewage into delicate waterways. It’s to the point where water firms want to raise their prices by more than 50% towards repairs (BBC News, 2024). Though how much of that extra revenue out of peopleâs pocket will realistically go towards long term mitigation and prevention of these dumping events is always a grey area.
This corruption can be combatted through law.
Loi SapĂn stabilised mean duration of French public service contracts France to 11 years with none exceeding 20 years (Le Moniteur, 2013). This prevented complacency in operators and motivates investment for firms to beat of competition which means the public users receive a higher quality standard of water infrastructure.
To bring British water firms would bring them into a similar structure in which the British railways are currently managed (prior to the rolling reform and full renationalisation out in place ever since the start of the Starmer premiership). Railways operate by competing for contracts delegated by Westminster on rail corridors. This would force out complacency where shareholder profits are the priority, and the customer and infrastructure and environment all fall in the latter.
Whilst the Starmer premiership reformed the way the railways were managed into a more direct control through nationalisation, operator delegated system led to increased investment of nine fold from ÂŁ698M in 1994-95 to ÂŁ8.4B in 2013-14 and an increase in quality services. If this investment level can be replicated for water, without the pitfalls and eventual failure that occurred in the railway industry through the replication of the Sapin Law into British legislation, then we can put an end to regular raw sewage dumping events into the delicate biodiverse British rivers and coasts.
The use of antibiotics in agriculture: addressing concerns over rising antibiotic resistance in livestock with legislative action (Fin Pilkington)
Antibiotics are used in agriculture primarily for two reasons, of which both aim to maximise livestock development above all else (Gustafson, 1991). In small quantities, antibiotics themselves can act as a growth promoter, ultimately increasing the overall meat on an animal and thereby the profit it can bring (Dibner and Richards, 2005). However, the most beneficial use of antibiotics in agriculture is preventative in nature. Animals are often continuously fed antibiotics to act as a prevention to disease before it can be contracted, which would otherwise inhibit growth and potentially spread within the enclosed spaces often found in agricultural practice (Sarkar et al., 2018).
The environmental harm posed here lies within the fact that over time, bacteria develop a resistance to antibiotics, developing strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Sarkar et al., 2018). These strains are not then limited to livestock, having the ability to leach into surrounding soils and water bodies where they subsequently have a far-reaching ecological impact (Gortazar et al., 2015). This includes the disruption of existing food chains, through animals that interact with the contaminated environment directly such as soil invertebrates and microorganisms which can be harmed by these strains of bacteria (Kumar et al., 2020). Once in the food chain, these strains of bacteria can extend through increasingly larger species, with potential for human contamination (Shahid et al., 2021). This is what would be seen as impacting ânon-target organismsâ, with all suffering as a direct result of the large-scale implementation of antibiotics in agriculture.
While this issue is now understood and widely accepted, many countries do not have sufficient measures in place to address the environmental harm posed by antibiotic use in agriculture (Aslam et al., 2018). The World Health Organisation has developed a âGlobal Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistanceâ, yet this has not seen much tangible action thereafter its implementation in many of the involved countries (Willemsen et al., 2022).
Some of the ideal preventative measures for agricultural antibiotics resistance are set as guidelines within the Codex Alimentarius, which is a non-binding international agreement relating to general codes of practice for the production of food (WHO, 2018). As stated, it is largely preventative rather than reactionary – aiming to eliminate where possible foodborne antibiotic-resistant bacteria through examining the various processes of food production (WHO, 2018). This, therefore, addresses many (but not all) of the environmental concerns associated with antibiotic resistance that occur before even reaching the consumer of any agricultural products. Unfortunately, the Codex Alimentarius is not followed at some or even all stages of food production in many countries worldwide (Godefroy, 2014). This can be owed to the individual integrations of this international set of guidelines into national law being either biased towards a countryâs individual priorities, or not being effectively enforced and managed within the context of that nationâs agricultural practices (Iskakova et al., 2016). Ultimately, this displays a need for further legal intervention to effectively address this environmental concern and must be done within the jurisdiction of an international level.
References:
Aslam, B., Wang, W., Arshad, M.I., Khurshid, M., Muzammil, S., Rasool, M.H., Nisar, M.A., Alvi, R.F., Aslam, M.A., Qamar, M.U. and Salamat, M.K.F., 2018. Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a global crisis. Infection and drug resistance, pp.1645-1658.
Dibner, J.J. and Richards, J.D., 2005. Antibiotic growth promoters in agriculture: history and mode of action. Poultry science, 84(4), pp.634-643.
Godefroy, S.B., 2014. Codex Alimentarius Commission at 50: major achievements and challenges ahead. International Food Risk Analysis Journal, 4.
Gortazar, C., Diez-Delgado, I., Barasona, J.A., Vicente, J., De La Fuente, J. and Boadella, M., 2015. The wild side of disease control at the wildlife-livestock-human interface: a review. Frontiers in veterinary science, 1, p.27.
Gustafson, R.H., 1991. Use of antibiotics in livestock and human health concerns. Journal of dairy science, 74(4), pp.1428-1432.
Iskakova, Z.T., Tlepina, S.V., Karabayev, F.Z., Namatilayevna, K.M., Niyazgulov, D.T. and Sabyrov, A., 2016. Integration association law and international law: the correlation and priority issues. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 9(36), pp.102016-102016.
Kumar, S.B., Arnipalli, S.R. and Ziouzenkova, O., 2020. Antibiotics in food chain: The consequences for antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics, 9(10), p.688.
Sarkar, D.J., Mukherjee, I., Shakil, N.A., Rana, V.S., Kaushik, P. and Debnath, S., 2018. Antibiotics in agriculture: use and impact. Ind. J. Ethnophytopharm, 4, pp.4-19.
Shahid, A., Ali, M.A., Muzammil, S., Aslam, B., Shahid, M., Saqalein, M., Akash, M.S.H., Almatroudi, A., Allemailem, K.S. and Khurshid, M., 2021. Antibiotic residues in food
chains; impact on the environment and human health: a review. Applied Ecology & Environmental Research, 19(5).
Willemsen, A., Reid, S. and Assefa, Y., 2022. A review of national action plans on antimicrobial resistance: strengths and weaknesses. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 11(1), p.90.
World Health Organization, 2018. Understanding the Codex Alimentarius. Food & Agriculture Org..
What is The Impact of Oil Spills in the Ocean in the UK? And How Can it Be Redressed? (Gina Barrett)
Introduction
Arguably the most urgent environmental issues are the ones impacting our oceans; it directly affects us in a bottom-up chain. More specifically, oil spillages disrupt marine habitats massively, and these disruptions can have long-lasting impacts on biodiversity, as well as delicate biogeochemical cycles. These can have severe ramifications on other environmental issues, and contribute to the already aggravated climate change our planet is experiencing. Moreover, oil spills damage coastal communities and industries that rely on the cohesion of the local marine ecosystem, such as fishing or tourism.
Despite this, legislation in the United Kingdom to prevent, report, and respond to oil spills is lacking. While certain Acts have been established, none provide sufficient deterrent or incentive for companies to improve their protocols and reduce the risk of accidents or spills. The failure for the UK to keep up with ecological needs and progression endangers marine environments further than they already are. This demonstrates that there must be more rigorous policies and better preparedness to prevent and manage these environmental disasters.
Mechanisms of Prevention
Currently, the main infrastructure in place to tackle oil spills are purely command and control mechanisms. This being legislation that was generally brought about in the 1970s and 80s.
Evidence to Support
Current legislation surrounding oil spills in the ocean can be found in the Prevention of Oil Pollution Act 1971, which penalises an individual âif any oil or mixture containing oil is dischargedâ. A person guilty of the offence shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ÂŁ50,000. This creates some issues as it is hard to prosecute a company or organisation, due to the law in England and Walesâs method of mens rea in criminal law. Furthermore, even if they were to convict this successfully, one can argue that a fine of up to ÂŁ50,000 is not particularly detrimental to a large shipping/oil mining company. This leaves a poor incentive for them to improve their own policies.
The Environment Protection Act 1990, and The Environmental Damage (Prevention and Remediation) (England) Regulations 2015 both require clean ups of oil spills that damage soil, water or property. However, once oil spills occur, clean up takes a long time, and a lot of money/time/effort/manpower. Furthermore, the damage can be said to have already been done to marine life. I want to create a greater deterrent for companies to be more careful and reduce risk of oil spills.
The greatest oil spill in the UK to date is that of the Torrey Canyon in 1967 – actually the worldâs first oil tanker disaster – where 80,000-119,000 tonnes of crude oil was spilt into the ocean just past the Scilly Isles. The effects of this lasted a generation, with beaches in Cornwall and France covered with black crude oil, and an estimate of 15,000 birds killed (International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2023).
Legal mechanisms to effectively tackle ghost fishing (Molly Larkins)
Fishing equipment has been abandoned or lost ever since fishing began, however it has become increasing problematic since the arrival of plastic fishing equipment in the 1960âs (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024) (Scott, 2023). Plastic pollution in the ocean is so severe that by 2025 it is predicted that there will be more plastic in the sea than fish (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024). Unfortunately, most of this pollution comes from marine activity such as recreational boating, shipping and fishing, with it creating 27% of the worldâs pollution originates (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024).
The fishing industry is the largest marine contributor releasing 640,000 tonnes of rubbish into the ocean per year (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024). The proportion of plastic fishing gear is ever increasing and is the main perpetrator in ghost fishing which is when this gear is abandoned or lost at sea (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024) (Scott, 2023). This lost gear such as nets, pots and lines wreak havoc on the ecosystem, primarily by entangling and killing sea creatures, but they also cause these creatures to ingest plastic (Scott, 2023). Over 200 species of animals ingest this plastic, 312 sea birdâs species and 26 cetacean species (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024).
This report will explore why there are currently no specific international laws targeting ghost fishing as well as the current legislation, which is the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972 (the London Convention) and 1996 London Protocol, which are international treaties aimed at tackling the general pollution of the ocean (Choi, Dan and Lee, 2024) (US EPA, 2015).
It will explore mechanisms to effectively tackle ghost fishing, such as international laws on making fishing gear traceable and market-based mechanisms to increase the use of biodegradable fishing equipment. These techniques should reduce the amount of plastic equipment used and mindlessly abandoned, which should reduce the overall effects of ghost fishing.
References:
Choi, J., Dan, H. and Lee, C. (2024). Recommendations and challenges for the regulations of ghost fishing gears. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, pp.1â22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2024.2416337.
âScott, E. (2023). Mitigating ghost fishing. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 4(11), pp.737â737. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-023-00499-6.
US EPA. (2015). London Convention and London Protocol: International Treaties to Prevent Marine Pollution | US EPA. [online] Available at: https://www.epa.gov/ocean-dumping/london-convention-and-london-protocol-international-treaties-prevent-marine-pollution.
Protecting the Amazon: Addressing Illegal Logging Through Enhanced Legal Mechanisms (Jude Anderson)
Illegal logging in the Amazon is widespread, with studies indicating an âoverall percentage of illegality in Peru of 37% (Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros, 2021, p. 3) and satellite mapping data showing that âlogging activities cleared 464,000 hectares (1.15 million acres) of the Brazilian Amazon [âŠ} between August 2019 and July 2020â (Ennes, 2021, para. 2). Driven by high timber demand and facilitated by complex regulations and weak enforcement (Kleinschmit et al., 2016, p.25), common illegal methods include forged permits, cutting protected species, exceeding quotas, and encroaching on protected lands.
The impacts are severe, encompassing habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss, and economic damage. For every commercial tree removed, an estimated 27 others are damaged, opening 600m2 of canopy (WWF, n.d., para.12). Illegal logging undercuts legitimate timber prices, costing governments billions in lost revenues and undermining sustainable forest management (WWF, 2011, pp.3-4). Critically, âthe Amazon basin is a key component of the global carbon cycle [with] the old-growth rainforests in the basin representing the storage of ~120 petagrams of carbon (equal to 120 billion metric tons) in their biomassâ (Vergara and Scholz, 2010, p.17), therefore its loss could significantly accelerate global climate change.
Current legal mechanisms like the U.S. Lacey Act, EU Timber Regulation, and Brazil’s Forest Code face enforcement challenges due to the Amazon’s vastness and prevalence of fraud in the timber industry. A recent study found that âalthough most of the logging in Mato Grosso has been authorized, the area with illegal activity grew 17% compared to the previous surveyâ (Imazon, 2022, para.3) highlighting the insufficiency of current measures.
To enhance efforts against illegal logging in the Amazon, new legal mechanisms could be implemented to complement existing frameworks. These might include:
Technological solutions, such as blockchain for timber certification show promise in enhancing transparency and reduce fraud. âThe transparency offered by blockchain opens the possibility of effectively combating the trade in illegally harvested timber and promoting sustainability in forestry, such as through certification schemesâ (Stopfer, Kaulen and PurfĂŒrst, 2024).
Illegal logging in the Amazon presents an urgent and complex challenge. The scale of the problem demands immediate and decisive action. While existing legal mechanisms have made some progress, they have proven insufficient to curb the practice effectively. The proposed new legal approaches offer promising avenues to combat illegal; logging more effectively. These measures, combined with improved enforcement and international cooperation, have the potential to significantly reduce illegal logging activities and protect the Amazonâs vital ecosystems. However, success will ultimately depend on strong political will, adequate resources, and addressing the underlying socio-economic drivers of deforestation. The urgency of the situation cannot be overstated â swift implementation of these new approaches is crucial to preserve the Amazon’s irreplaceable biodiversity and its role in global climate regulation.
Reference list:
Ennes, J. (2021). Illegal logging reaches Amazonâs untouched core, âterrifyingâ research shows. [online] Mongabay Environmental News. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/illegal-logging-reaches-amazons-untouched-core-terrifying-research-shows/ [Accessed 25 Oct. 2024].
Imazon (2022). Almost 40% of logging in the Amazon is illegal, shows an unprecedented study. [online] Imazon. Available at: https://imazon.org.br/en/imprensa/almost-40-of-logging-in-the-amazon-is-illegal-shows-an-unprecedented-study/ [Accessed 26 Oct. 2024].
Kleinschmit, D., Mansourian, S., Wildburger, C. and Purret, A. (2016). Illegal Logging and Related Timber Trade-Dimensions, Drivers, Impacts and Responses A Global Scientific Rapid Response Assessment Report. [online] International Union of Forest Research Organisations (IUFRO), p.25. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324360316_Illegal_Logging_and_Related_Timber_Trade-Dimensions_Drivers_Impacts_and_Responses_A_Global_Scientific_Rapid_Response_Assessment_Report [Accessed 25 Oct. 2024].
Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros (2021). Peru Updates Illegal Logging and Roundwood Trade Index. [online] pp.1â3. Available at: https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/1756201/Policy%20Brief%20-%20English.pdf [Accessed 23 Oct. 2024].
Stopfer, L., Kaulen, A. and PurfĂŒrst, T. (2024). Potential of blockchain technology in wood supply chains. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, [online] 216, p.108496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2023.108496. [Accessed 23 Oct. 2024]
The Nature Conservancy (2019). Brazilian Amazon: The Forest Code. [online] Nature.org. Available at: https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/latin-america/brazil/stories-in-brazil/brazils-forest-code/ [Accessed 23 Oct. 2024].
UK Government (n.d.). Regulations: timber and FLEGT licences. [online] GOV.UK. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/regulations-timber-and-flegt-licences [Accessed 26 Oct. 2024].
USA Government (n.d.). Lacey Act | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. [online] FWS.gov. Available at: https://www.fws.gov/law/lacey-act [Accessed 23 Oct. 2024].
Vergara, W. and Scholz, S.M. (2010). Assessment of the Risk of Amazon Dieback. [online] World Bank Publications, p.17. Available at: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/exeter/reader.action?docID=635556# [Accessed 23 Oct. 2024].
WWF (2011). Briefing: Safeguarding the natural world TIMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS. [online] pp.3â5. Available at: http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/timber_briefing_280611.pdf [Accessed 26 Oct. 2024].
WWF (n.d.). Logging in the Amazon. [online] wwf.panda.org. Available at: https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/amazon_threats/other_threats/logging_amazon/#2 [Accessed 25 Oct. 2024].
Holding Mining Transnational Corporations Accountable: Environmental Justice for vulnerable villagers in Zambia (James Guy)
Konkola Copper Mines (KCM) is one of Zambiaâs largest mining operations, spanning an approximate 11 square miles along the Kafue River at the heart of Southern Africaâs copper belt. Vedanta Resources acquired control in 2004. A giant Transnational Corporation (TNC) operating in 6 countries for resources including precious metals, oil, gas and power.
Vedantaâs subsidiary KCM was first accused of toxic discharge from a copper mine called Nchanga in September 2015. Claims of poisoned water sources and destroyed farmland were brought about by the communities of Hippo Pool, Kakosa, Shimulala and Hellen. An initial 1826 villagers filed lawsuits against Vedanta Resources over an âallegedâ history of continual pollution that âgravely impacted their livesâ. Leaked BBC documents showed KCM had been spilling sulphuric acid and other toxic elements into the water source upstream. The legal proceedings saw High Court (2016), the Court of Appeal (2017) and the Supreme court (2019) where the court found the villagers would not be able to access justice in Zambia due to legal expenses and lack of funding.
A local lawyer Chilekwa Mumba sought justice for his country by taking on a landmark court battle, challenging Vedantaâs practices and advocating the rights of affected communities and environmental restoration for the damages caused. His work underscores the critical nature of legal mechanisms in addressing corporate accountability and environmental justice. Mumbaâs case indicates several legal mechanisms for prevention and redress. His case found strength through global public recognition of his work. He highlighted the failures to mandate a comprehensive environmental impact assessment (EIA) before the mining project was approved. Moreover, corporate social responsibility regulations were brought up. Stricter operating regulations can compel companies to adhere to sustainable practices, providing redress for affected village communities is what Mumba sought and achieved.
Ultimately, the campaign was supported by evidence of significant pollution. Detailed reports from locals of health impacts and environmental degradation were found strongly associated with the spoil waste contamination of the Kafue River as a direct result of Konkola Copper Mines activities. An undisclosed settlement for more than 2500 villagers was agreed upon in 2021.
References:
Meeran, R., 2021. Multinational human rights litigation in the UK: A retrospective. Business and Human Rights Journal, 6(2), pp.255-269. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-and-human-rights-journal/article/abs/multinational-human-rights-litigation-in-the-uk-a-retrospective/64E3C1721B8E1BA1D929A5EE89DC6910
Atchabahian, A.C.R.C., 2022. Transterritoriality as a theory to hold corporations accountable for human rights violations: the application of its principles in Vedanta and Nevsun cases.
Braz. J. Int’l L., 19, p.68. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/brazintl19&div=36&id=&page=
Ahmed, M., 2020. Jurisdiction to Sue a Parent Company in the English Courts for the Actions of its Foreign Subsidiary. AtĂątĂŽt-Revista Interdisciplinar de Direitos Humanos da UEG, 1(2), pp.25-39. https://www.revista.ueg.br/index.php/atatot/article/view/11272
Yale E360 Article- This Zambian Took on a U.K. Mining Giant on Pollution and Won By Jocelyn
C. Zuckerman âą May 10, 2023 https://e360.yale.edu/features/chilekwa-mumba-interview
By Nimi Princewill, CNN article – For years, a UK mining giant was untouchable in Zambia for pollution until a former minerâs son took them on – 2023 https://edition.cnn.com/2023/04/26/africa/african-goldman-winner-2023-intl-cmd/index.html#:~:text=Villagers%20suffered%20nose%20bleeds%2C%20rashes,on%20behalf%20of%20the%20co mmunities.
Addressing the issue of plastic pollution in the Philippines (Hannah Drain)
The Philippines ranks third in the world as the biggest contributor to plastic pollution. The levels of plastic waste are estimated to be between 2.7 â 5.5 million metric tons per year (Schachter and Karasik, 2022). Around 20% of this waste is lost to the environment, one of these areas being the sea. The Philippine sea holds a high level of importance as it is known as being the centre for marine biodiversity (Carpenter and Springer). However, due to the levels of plastic pollution, the ecosystems are becoming smothered by it. As well as affecting the ecosystems in the sea surrounding the Philippines, the high levels of plastic in the water are resulting in a lower yield of fish for fishermen (Sea Circular, 2020).
One of the ways to address this problem is through market-based methods. Using tax incentives on single use plastic, such as plastic bags, could help to cut down on the amount of plastic thrown away. This is a simple method of reducing plastic that has been proven to work in other areas of the world, such as the UK (Thomas et al, 2019). However, although this solution is simple, it has the potential to have a negative impact on people with a lower income who may struggle to comply with the taxation on the plastic bags.
Another way to reduce the amount of plastic waste is through command and control methods. By using this method, laws could be put in place to make sure that companies dispose of plastic waste properly to avoid the flow of plastic into the environment. However, this can be hard to enforce and doesnât always work as it can hinder the productivity of a company (Tang et al, 2020).
In conclusion, in order to address this problem, a blend of command and control and market based methods need to be used to bring the amount of plastic waste down on a national scale. Command and control methods need to be used to enforce stricter measures on plastic at the company level and market based methods need to be used in order to incentivise individual people to use less plastic.
Reference list:
Carpenter, K.E. and Springer, V.G., 2005. The center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity: the Philippine Islands. Environmental biology of fishes, 72, pp.467-480.
Schachter, J. and Karasik, R., 2022. Plastic pollution policy country Profile: Philippines. NI PB, pp.22-10.
Sea Circular (2020). Philippines. [online] Sea circular. Available at: https://www.sea-circular.org/country/philippines/. (Accessed: 1 November 2024)
Tang, H.L., Liu, J.M. and Wu, J.G., 2020. The impact of command-and-control environmental regulation on enterprise total factor productivity: A quasi-natural experiment based on Chinaâs âTwo Control Zoneâ policy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 254, p.120011.
Thomas, G.O., Sautkina, E., Poortinga, W., Wolstenholme, E. and Whitmarsh, L., 2019. The English plastic bag charge changed behavior and increased support for other charges to reduce plastic waste. Frontiers in psychology, 10, p.266.
Marine Plastic Pollution in China (Rachel Winfield)
Marine plastic pollution poses a great threat on the health, biodiversity, and functioning of the earth system. All plastics are synthetic polymers, a range of polymers exist such as polyethylene or polypropylene (2), which all contain different properties. Therefore, plastic is a highly versatile and useful material with a slow decomposition rate (1), that can be used for a multitude of utensils, explaining the high demand from society. Due to this, there was an estimated 150 million metric tons of plastic in the marine environment in 2016 (1). Plastic enters water systems mainly through land-based sources, such as agriculture, industry or runoff, negatively affecting the marine environment. A loss of biodiversity through habitat destruction, death of species through ingestion or entanglement and food/economic insecurity.
China is one of the largest producers and polluters of plastic, due to its large industry, fast economic growth and poor waste management. 81% of China’s coastal regions are reported as âheavily pollutedâ (3). China’s coastal regions host a myriad of diverse marine habitats, including coral reefs, salt marshes and estuaries. River estuaries in China transport a large majority of plastics to the ocean as a result of âdumpingâ and runoff (3) due to little/poor infrastructure and loose regulations.
China has implemented the âplastic limit orderâ since 2008, reducing the use and production of certain plastic bags (5). This market based mechanism has seen some benefits, such as a â reduction, however being one of the largest producers this has a less significant impact. Further efforts need to be made. Command and control mechanisms such as banning or limiting certain polymers and methods of extracting current plastic pollution could be more effective and may see fewer long-term negative impacts on the environment. This comes with many challenges, a big country with a large industry is hard to monitor and control and there are still high over-consumption rates. Marine plastic pollution is an important environmental concern. It impacts a wide range of people, species and environments. Finding and applying a successful method/s to combat the issue is difficult but necessary.
Redressing Landfill Waste in the UK (Yosita Bunploeng)
Landfill waste impacts human and animal society by releasing harmful particles into land, air and water. According to Saud (2024), methane, a greenhouse gas, is the main toxin that lives in the waste as the generation of waste builds up without proper mitigation of the gases that have been produced from the anaerobic decomposition of organic waste. As a result of the increase in climate change and the increase in global warming. Landfills also relate to significant risks of groundwater and soil contamination, which can affect human and environmental health as the toxins can infiltrate through the ecosystems (Siddiqua, Hahladakis and Al-Attiya, 2022). Moreover, as the population increases, landfills take up a lot of space, so reducing landfills is necessary (Koda et al., 2021).
On a national jurisdiction in redressing this problem, the United Kingdom initiated the âLandfill Taxâ, a progressive waste management policy to reduce waste and recycling, especially plastics, supported by the Environmental Act 2021, where they aim 65% as a recycling target from the recycling rate of âmunicipal wasteâ by 2035 (Sastre, Llopart and Puig Ventosa, 2018; Bell et al., 2024; Cheong, 2024).
UK councils provide composting and recycling services through community and local supports, such as Bristol and Edinburgh have adopted zero-waste strategies. This encourages the education of âreduction, reuse, and recyclingâ of waste, helping to minimise landfill dependency (Barr, Gilg and Ford, 2001). Furthermore, the âwaste-to-energy technologiesâ use anaerobic digestion and landfill gas capture to convert the organic waste material and methane emissions into renewable energy, which helps to reduce the environmental impact of landfills (TabasovĂĄ et al., 2012).
Regardless of these achievements, the problem remains. To improve recycling practices and minimise the contamination in recycling streams, awareness should be raised and encouraging activities from the public. Moreover, the sustained investment in waste management technologies and infrastructure is vital to achieving national targets and decreasing dependence on landfills. In general, redressing landfill waste in the UK needs to come up with a strategy that can join the community, policies and technology as a result of sustainable waste management and decrease in environmental impact.
References:
Barr, S., Gilg, A. and Ford, N. (2001). Differences Between Household Waste Reduction, Reuse and Recycling Behaviour: a Study of Reported Behaviours, Intentions and Explanatory Variables. Environmental & Waste Management, [online] 4(2). Available at: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=05bec2cf66de38b061978ac886d48bfd90931dc2.
Bell, S., McGillivrary, D., Pedersen, O.W., Lees, E. and Stokes, E. (2024). Waste Management. [online] Law Trove. Available at: https://www.oxfordlawtrove.com/display/10.1093/he/9780192847690.001.0001/he-9780192847690-chapter-19?rskey=6yDWYs&result=1.
Cheong, B.C. (2024). Climate Volatility, Foundational Freedoms, and the Environment Act 2021: The Transformative Potential of the Principle of Legality. Statute Law Review, 45(2). doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/slr/hmae038.
Koda, E., Rybak-NiedziĂłĆka, K., Winkler, J., ÄernĂœ, M., OsiĆski, P., Podlasek, A., Kawalec, J. and VaverkovĂĄ, M.D. (2021). Space Redevelopment of Old Landfill Located in the Zone between Urban and Protected Areas: Case Study. Energies, 15(1), p.146. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010146.
Sastre, S., Llopart, J. and Puig Ventosa, I. (2018). Mind the gap: A model for the EU recycling target applied to the Spanish regions. Waste Management, 79, pp.415â427. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.07.046.
Saud, A.R. (2024). METHANE GAS: A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE. [online] Psu.edu. Available at: https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/catalog/11607 [Accessed 4 Nov. 2024].
Siddiqua, A., Hahladakis, J.N. and Al-Attiya, W.A.K.A. (2022). An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, [online] 29(39). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21578-z.
TabasovĂĄ, A., KropĂĄÄ, J., Kermes, V., Nemet, A. and StehlĂk, P. (2012). Waste-to-energy technologies: Impact on environment. Energy, [online] 44(1), pp.146â155. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.01.014.
The Protection of Small Island Nations in the Face of Sea Level Rise: Tuvalu – the Digital Island Nation (Krystyna Salter)
Rising sea level is an impact of climate change that is already being felt across much of the world and is only going to continue to worsen as temperatures rise. The Pacific islands, specifically Tuvalu, are already facing the devastating effects of sea level rise with increased coastal flooding, worsening storm damage and the threat of environmental refuge. The small island nation faces a higher than average rate of sea level rise (SLR) in comparison to the global average (Boretti 2024) with its impacts consequently being disproportionately felt. As a result of its strong cultural heritage, Tuvalu continues to do everything in its power to protect the nation, culturally and physically; it has become the first digital nation in a bid to preserve its cultural heritage for future generations as the islands sink and communities are submerged.
It is clear that the effects of climate change are not felt equally across the globe and that this has contributed to minimal policy decisions to protect smaller nations that are currently being devastated by effects not recognised by first-world countries. National policy between the Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) has already been set in place to protect and conserve: Framework for Pacific Oceanscape, The Rising Nations Initiative (RNI) and the 2050 Strategy for the Blue Pacific Continent. However, the issue of SLR is one that requires international input. Tuvalu, along with Antigua and Barbuda have approached and given evidence to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) to consider if carbon emissions that are absorbed by the sea would be considered marine pollution and how obliged nations should be to protect this environment. It was ruled that all signatories of UNCLOS are responsible for the prevention of marine pollution. The enforcement of this broad law, however, is questionable and calls for a more hard, strict approach, such as a command and control mechanism, to ensure the protection of PICTs in the future.
Chalk Streams Under Threat: Legal responses to pollution and over abstraction (Kohana McLauchlan)
Characterised by a unique chalk geology, enabling filtered, clear and mineral rich water and a habitat for an abundance of flora and fauna, David Attenborough described chalk streams as âone of the worldâs rarest and most beautiful freshwater habitatsâ (BBC, 2023, 00.30.57). With 85% of the world’s chalk aquifer fed rivers found in the UK, they are an ecologically and culturally significant landform in the UK (Almeroth-Williams, 2023).
Despite this, more than three quarters of chalk streams in the UK are categorised as being at risk and are more likely to be assessed as in poor ecological status (WWF UK, n.d., OâNeill & Hughes, 2014). This degradation and environmental decline is caused mostly by human activity (Rangley-Wilson, 2005). Currently, the greatest risks faced by chalk rivers in the UK are from over abstraction from the chalk aquifers that feed them as well as pollution from agricultural runoff.
Only 11 of the 220 British chalk rivers are currently given legal protection through designation as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and four as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) under the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) and Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulation (2017) respectively (Lancaster & Palmer, 2023). While this is a positive step, greater legal protection is needed to make a significant impact on the survival of these rare ecosystems. For example, in Harris v Environment Agency (2022) the EA was found to have acted unlawfully during its investigation into abstraction licenses across three SSSIs in the Norfolk Broads. This case showed that the abstraction license review process carried out by the EA was not sufficient to ensure that over abstraction was not taking place. It also emphasised the fact that the individual protection offered by SSSIs and SACs is not suited for the broad scale at which chalk streams are influenced. Small changes taking place across the entire catchment area can have a large impact on these rivers and legal mechanisms for regulation should reflect this (The Hampshire & Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust, n.d.).
Community governance involving NGO groups such as River Action and the Wildlife Trusts could be a viable way of ensuring chalk streams remain protected from pollution and over abstraction in the future. The Hampshire & Isle of Wight Trust is advocating for the inclusion of chalk streams within the National Planning Policy Framework (Hampshire & Isle of Wight Trust, n.d.-a). This calls for measures such as a 50-100m wide âno developmentâ area across chalk rivers and their riparian buffer zone.
Water companies hold significant blame for the state of the UKâs chalk streams; the cause of one sixth of failing chalk streams are from both legal and illegal release of sewage (OâNeill & Hughes, 2014). In this case, strict command and control mechanism such as fines, sanctions and stricter permits could be utilised to ensure economic consequences to water companies taking part in ecologically harmful practices carried out in chalk river catchments.
References:
Almeroth-Williams, T. (2023) Saving Englandâs Chalk Streams. Available at: https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/saving-englands-chalk-streams (26th October 2024)
Wild Isles (2023) Freshwater. BBC One Television, 23 March 2023. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/p0f21hnt/wild-isles-series-1-4-freshwater
‘Harris v. Environment Agency’ (2022) Queen’s Bench Division, 3345, BAILII, Available at: https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/Admin/2022/2264.html (2nd November)
Lancaster, C. & Palmer, J. (2023) Environmental campaigners call for chalk streams legal protection. BBC News, 20th September, Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-hampshire-66853611 (28th October 2024)
OâNeill, R. & Hughes, K. (2014) The State of Englandâs Chalk Streams. https://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/wwf_chalkstreamreport_jan15_forweb.pdf?_ga=1.44823268.1991529649.1444910634
Rangley-Wilson, C. (2005) Chalkstream: In Praise of the Ultimate River. Medlar Press.
The Hampshire & Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust (n.d.-a) Save Our Chalk Streams. Available at: https://www.hiwwt.org.uk/rivers (2nd November)
The Hampshire & Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust (n.d.-a) Our Technical Guidance: National Planning Policy Framework. Available at: https://www.hiwwt.org.uk/sites/default/files/2024-09/Chalk%20stream%20Technical%20Guidance.pdf ( 2nd November)
The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulation 2017 (SI 2017/1012). Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2017/1012/contents (28th October 2024)
WWF. (n.d.) UK Rivers and Chalk Streams. Available at: https://www.wwf.org.uk/where-we-work/uk-rivers-and-chalk-streams (27th October 2024)
Deforestation and tropical peatland drainage in Indonesia, namely Riau Province Sumatra (Emma Lawrence)
Introduction to the problem:
The Riau province is experiencing the highest rate of deforestation and land cover change in the world1. Deforestation in Riau accounts for 42% of the total 7.5 million hectares of deforestation in the Sumatra region1. Tropical peatlands and forests that cover these areas are vital ecosystems for humans, animals and climate regulation. They are biodiverse hotspots home to a huge variety of unique flora and fauna2,3. One of their most important functions is climate regulation, as these tropical peatland areas act as a huge carbon store2. The waterlogged conditions of peatlands mean there is a lack of oxygen, preventing the natural breakdown of organic matter2. The prevention of decomposition means that carbon dioxide is stored instead of released into the atmosphere, which is important for reducing the effects of climate change. Current estimates have stated that tropical peat stores around 152â288 Gt of carbon, with peat in Indonesia storing 13.6â40.5 Gt2. Deforestation and peatland drainage to make way for oil palm or timber plantations is the leading cause of land cover change in this region1. Deforestation of these areas stunts peat accumulation4 meaning less carbon is stored. As well as this, the act of deforesting and draining these areas itself releases carbon dioxide, such as the use of fires to clear large areas of land2, 5.
The depletion of these vital ecosystems is vastly unregulated and rapidly increasing due to demand for land for agricultural use5. Confusion over land ownership5 has meant that laws regarding protection of the forests are hard to enact, let alone enforce6. As well as this, the profitable nature of oil palm plantations means that regulation of deforestation and peatland drainage often goes against the economic development of the local communities5, resulting in backlash.
Possible mechanisms:
There are already some mechanisms in place to protect peatlands in Indonesia. This includes the Ministry of Agriculture Decree No. 14 year 2009, which states that in areas of peat that are 3m or more deep, oil palm plantations are banned6. As mentioned previously, policies such as this one are often difficult to enforce due to land ownership struggles5, 6, and poor enforcement tactics6. Policies that focus on community engagement and gain in peatland restoration and protection would be a good mechanism to protect these areas7. In areas where communities rely on these lands for income, more sustainable agricultural methods can be pushed that do not require peatland drainage6.
References:
Plastic Pollution: Strategies to Combat Waste Accumulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Ankita Robert)
Introduction
Plastic waste accumulation in the Mediterranean Sea has emerged as a critical environmental crisis, with the region now ranked among the most plastic-polluted marine areas globally (Suaria et al., 2016). Annually, more than 570,000 tons of plastic enter the Mediterranean, stemming from sources such as tourism, urban coastal expansion, and maritime activities, severely impacting marine ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health (WWF, 2019). The Mediterraneanâs semi-enclosed nature, high population density along its coasts, and limited water exchange exacerbate plastic pollution, causing microplastics and larger debris to accumulate and persist in the environment. This persistent pollution has significant ecological consequences, from harming marine species and disrupting ecosystems to permeating the food chain through microplastic ingestion, posing health risks to human populations (Cozar et al., 2015).
Mechanisms of Prevention and Redress
Tackling plastic pollution in the Mediterranean requires a multi-dimensional strategy incorporating policy interventions, regional partnerships, and local engagement. One key mechanism is the European Unionâs Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), which aims to achieve “Good Environmental Status” in EU marine waters by implementing measures that prevent and reduce marine pollution, including plastic waste (European Commission, 2008). Under the MSFD, Mediterranean member states are encouraged to develop action plans for monitoring and mitigating marine litter, incorporating approaches like extended producer responsibility and enhancements to waste management infrastructure.
Additionally, the EU Directive on Single-Use Plastics (2019) targets reductions in plastic products frequently found in marine environments, such as bags, straws, and cutlery. This directive has led to national bans on single-use plastics and strengthened awareness campaigns on waste reduction across Mediterranean countries (Said et al., 2020). Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), also play a vital role by conducting cleanup operations and promoting educational programs that engage coastal communities in reducing plastic waste, further reinforcing the EUâs legislative efforts.
Research Insights and Impacts
Research demonstrates the effectiveness of these policy interventions in reducing plastic leakage into marine ecosystems. For example, following the EUâs single-use plastics ban, France and Italy reported notable reductions in plastic waste along their coastlines, highlighting the impact of regulatory measures (UNEP, 2021). Moreover, a study by Schmidt et al. (2017) found that implementing robust waste management systems across the Mediterranean could reduce plastic leakage by up to 95%, emphasizing the need for coordinated regional actions.
While these initiatives show promise, challenges remain, including inconsistent enforcement and limited resources in some Mediterranean countries. Addressing these obstacles by reinforcing policies and fostering collaborative regional efforts is essential for reducing plastic waste and preserving the Mediterraneanâs ecological health and the welfare of its coastal economies.
Navigating Legal Waters: addressing the environmental regulation of overfishing (Anya Woolvine)
Fishing is an ancient form of exploitation, having appeared in the early evolution of hominids and in the transition from hunter-gather society to settled civilization (1). The enormous scale of fishing today continues to drive overfishing and unsustainable practices, threatening global fish populations, food security, marine biodiversity and ecosystems. Fisheries can be found extensively in all global oceans, covering >55% of global ocean area (2). In 2022, fisheries and aquaculture produced a record-breaking 185.4 million tons of aquatic animals (3). The environmental impacts on habitat damage are extensive and often irreversible. For example, bottom trawling methods target deep water species and isolated seamounts which are biodiversity hotspots and have a low resilience to fishing (4).
In Europe, fishing fleets and stocks are managed by the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). After BREXIT, a close relationship between the UK and EU was implemented through the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement as many fisheries overlap despite the UK being an independent coastal state. MSY, the maximum sustainable yield, is the maximum level at which a fish stock can be routinely exploited without long-term depletion, therefore determining a sustainable fishery. The CFP aimed to fish all stocks at MSY by 2020, however inevitably this was not achieved (5). This can be partly due to not enough data and extensive knowledge gaps, but also insufficient management and environmental regulation.
Millions of animals have been accidentally caught and killed as bycatch over recent decades. One way to control this is through the command-and-control mechanism of location and time-specific restrictions on areas where research describes fish as highly concentrated and below minimum catch size (7). To successfully monitor this, the EU control system uses satellite-based technologies like the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) (6). The proposal of Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs) with âNo Take Zonesâ completely bans all fishing activity within the stated area. For example, the two inshore HPMAs: Allonby Bay and Lindisfarne in the Irish and North Sea (8). However, the maladaptive characteristics of command-and-control restrictions would not be suitable for local issues dependent upon trust in a community.
Market-based mechanisms are used in the âlanding obligationâ (2013), incentivizing fishers to fish selectively, requiring them to land all catches, even unwanted ones. The implementation of this has proved very difficult as member states are not cooperating enough to control the fishersâ actions (9). Community governance, rather than just top-down government control, would allow fishers to regulate their own activity in alignment with the government’s rules as trust between local authorities and fishers may be easier to maintain than trust with government regulators. For example, Community-Based Fisheries Management (CBFM) areas in the Pacific Islands allow local fisheries to regulate their own fishing activities, protected areas and sustainable practices in alliance with their specific ecological needs (10). For community governance to work, heavy government funding, for example the European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund (EMFAF), is needed to provide better technology and monitoring techniques for tighter implementation.
References:
The impact of lithium mining in Chile’s Atacama Desert (Sarah Tenzing)
The environmental problem:
Lithium mining plays a vital role in Chileâs economy, in 2021 it contributed to 14% of Chileâs total GDP (1). However, the negative environmental impact of lithium mining certainly outweighs the positive impacts it had for the economy. For every ton of Lithium produced approximately 500,000 litres of water are used (2) and as a result Lithium mining has consumed 65% of local water supply in Salar de Atacama, one of the country’s key mining regions (3) with a consequence of many locals being forced to migrate to different areas of the country (4). Moreover, the population of flamingos are declining in Atacama Desert, James and Andean flamingos declined by 10-12% (5) and the scientific consensus attributes this to lithium mining causing water shortages which make flamingos less likely to procreate. In addition, the World Resources Institute has claimed that Chile could risk running out of water supply by 2040 (6). Overall, lithium mining contributes to resource depletion and undermines essential ecosystem services as well as cause environmental injustice due to the displacement of local communities.
Current legislation to mitigate this problem:
The Chilean government adopts the sustainable development principle: the National Lithium Strategy in 2023 centres around state dominance in Lithium mining to ensure that sustainable practices are upheld, and environmental damage is minimised whilst also maintaining economic growth. The National Lithium Strategy is a form of command-and-control regulation, where the state exerts direct oversight: If private companies want to take part in Lithium mining, they must make negotiations with the government and abide to Special Lithium Operating Contracts and this ensures environmental damage is minimised. Moreover, the strategy plans on transitioning from using evaporation ponds to direct lithium extraction: evaporation ponds require more water and have a higher carbon footprint whilst direct lithium extraction is more efficient. However, there is no mandate on using direct lithium extraction (7) so private companies can continue to use evaporation ponds. This highlights the weakness of the National Lithium strategy because the absence of a mandate suggests a failure to enforce the use of Best Available Techniques; if direct lithium extraction was mandated for all businesses that mine lithium this would minimise pollution most effectively.
Potential future solutions:
The BrineMine Project can be a potential public-private partnership, they are exploring the idea of using geothermal brines to generate electricity while simultaneously extracting lithium and producing clean drinking water (8). The BrineMine Project uses geothermal brines, first extracting heat to generate electricity. The residual hot brine, which contains high concentrations of lithium, is subsequently processed to separate and extract lithium. Then, the contaminants are removed, which provides purified water. This integrated approach efficiently produces renewable energy, lithium, and clean drinking water from a single process. If we apply the polluter pays principle the Chilean government can hold mining companies financially accountable for environmental harm and mining companies could fund BrineMine-type projects to compensate for water depletion and ecosystem disruption.
References:
Legal Solutions to combat the deforestation of Indonesian Rainforests as a result of the Palm Oil (Fin Paton)
Industry Palm Oil is roughly in 50% of the products in supermarkets ranging from pizza to lipstick (World Wildlife Fund, 2018), with Indonesia being the worldâs largest producer of the substance since 2007, with it having 58% of the global market in 2020 (Xin, Sun and Hansen, 2022). From the period of 1975-2005, Indonesia saw dramatic land use change, with mature palm oil increasing form 0.1Mha to 3.9Mha (Wicke et al., 2011), making its total land area the equivalent size of 5.38 million Wembley Stadiums. Another issue with palm oil is its production, which is considered to cause the most harm to biodiversity out of all crop plantations (Petrenko, Paltseva and Searle, 2016). The deforestation of Indonesia has resulted in the country being viewed as one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally (Austin et al., 2019).
Current legislation that exists in Indonesia to try combat this issue was the moratorium of permits for forests and peatland to be deforested in 2011, which was then made permanent in 2019 (Christina, 2024). As well as this, the European Union established the EU deforestation free regulation, which mandates the import or export of trade goods linked to deforestation must prove that the goods do not originate from recently deforested land, which has helped reduce the amount of illegal logging in Indonesia (Union, 2023). Furthermore, alongside the moratorium, Indonesia established the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) scheme, which required permit holders to showcase the legality of their practices and was revised as recently as 2020 (Environmental Investigation Agency, 2021).
Whilst these policies on the surface seem promising, Indonesia does not have the resources to make sure they are properly maintained. All permit holders were supposed to have completed the ISPO by 2014, with only 38% having done this as of 2021, and as well of this it was found that 81% palm oil plantations have illegalities (Environmental Investigation Agency, 2021). Furthermore, evidence of corruption with governmental officials. A key example of this occurred in 2023, when palm oil kingpin Surya Darmadi received a 15-year prison sentence for his part of a corruption scheme that cleared protected forests (Llewellyn, 2023). As well as this, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), is currently formulating a plan to work with the Indonesian Palm Oil Association (GAPKI), in order to tackle corruption (UNODC, 2024). Moreover, last month Indonesiaâs Ministry of Environment and Forestry was searched by prosecutors for evidence relating to corruption in the palm oil industry (Coates, 2024).
To conclude, whilst it is clear that Indonesia is trying to improve its practices regarding palm oil, the current legislation is ineffective, and perhaps more importantly, difficult to monitor.
References:
Austin, K.G., Schwantes, A., Gu, Y. and Kasibhatla, P.S. (2019). What causes deforestation in Indonesia? Environmental Research Letters, [online] 14(2), p.024007. doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db.
Christina, B. (2024). How Indonesiaâs deforestation persists despite moratorium. [online] Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/how-indonesiasdeforestation-persists-despite-moratorium-2024-06-20/ [Accessed 3 Nov. 2024].
Coates, K. (2024). Indonesia investigates suspected corruption in palm oil amnesty program. [online] Mongabay Environmental News. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2024/10/indonesia-investigates-suspected-corruption-in-palmoil-amnesty-program/ [Accessed 3 Nov. 2024].
Environmental Investigation Agency (2021). Deforestation and Deregulation Indonesiaâs policies and implications for its palm oil sector. [online] pp.1â23. Available at: https://eiainternational.org/wpcontent/uploads/EIA_UK_Palm_Oil_Deregulation_Report_0921_FINAL_SPREADS.pdf [Accessed 3 Nov. 2024].
Llewellyn, A. (2023). Indonesiaâs palm oil tycoon Darmadi gets 15 years for corruption. [online] www.aljazeera.com. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2023/2/24/indonesias-palm-oil-tycoon-darmadi-gets15-years-for-corruption.
Petrenko, C., Paltseva, J. and Searle, S. (2016). Ecological impacts of palm oil expansion in Indonesia. Washington (US): International Council on Clean Transportation, pp.1â21.
Union, E. (2023). REGULATION (EU) 2023/1115 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL. [online] Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32023R1115&qid=1687867231461 [Accessed 3 Nov. 2024].
UNODC (2024). UNODC works with palm oil industry in combatting corruption. [online] United Nations : UNODC Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/roseap/en/indonesia/2024/10/palm-oil-corruption/story.html [Accessed 3 Nov. 2024].
Wicke, B., Sikkema, R., Dornburg, V. and Faaij, A. (2011). Exploring land use changes and the role of palm oil production in Indonesia and Malaysia. Land Use Policy, [online] 28(1), pp.193â206. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2010.06.001.
World Wildlife Fund (2018). 8 things to know about palm oil. [online] WWF. Available at: https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/8-things-know-about-palm-oil.
Xin, Y., Sun, L. and Hansen, M.C. (2022). Oil palm reconciliation in Indonesia: Balancing rising demand and environmental conservation towards 2050. Journal of Cleaner Production, [online] 380, p.135087. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135087.
Potential Legislative Mechanisms to Prevent Soil Degradation in the UK (Howard Carter)
Healthy soils provide a wealth of ecosystem services such as enabling food production, water filtration, flood regulation and is a vital store of terrestrial organic carbon which mitigates against the negative effects of climate change (Ginzky et al, 2024). The capacity of agroecosystems to deliver these essential services is directly linked to their soil properties and composition (Steinhoff-Knopp et al, 2021). The proliferation of intensive, unsustainable agricultural practices has led to an increase in soil compaction, soil erosion and soil contamination. Consequently, these processes contribute to diffuse agricultural pollution which has direct impacts for adjacent land units and nearby watercourses.
Soil degradation is influenced by a plethora of physical, economic and cultural factors. All these factors must all be understood and incorporated to construct a robust legal framework able to adapt to the dynamics of agroecosystems, be perspicuous in its stipulations and effective in its implementation.
Soil erosion and degradation affects sustainable development goal 2 ((SDG2) zero hunger) and SDG15 (life on land) (Panagos et al, 2020). To combat this, policymakers have had to develop finely balanced regulatory and market-based legislative instruments to accelerate the transition to sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) and prompt human behavioural change. Ecosystem services are an anthropocentric evaluation of the human benefits obtained from natural capital. Economic impact assessments of losing these services have been shown to emphasise and concretize the effects of these diminishing services leading to the development of legal mechanisms (Robinson and Lebron, 2010).
The Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC) were standards set out under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) whereby there was a requirement to uphold certain sustainability standards to receive their subsidies. The use of these cross-compliance mechanisms employed the use of market-based mechanisms to mitigate against soil erosion and use command and control aspects to enforce the legislation and ban certain damaging activities (Verspecht et al, 2011). Since leaving the EU the UK has replaced the CAP with the Environmental Land Management schemes (ELMs) which utilize Sustainable Farming Incentives (SFIs) to encourage farmers to increase their soil resilience and health in exchange for financial gains. These measures require funds to allow farmers to stay competitive despite the lower yields caused by adoption of SAPs. Other legislation such as The Reduction and Prevention of Agricultural Diffuse Pollution (England) Regulations 2018 usesCommand and Control mechanisms to set strict, binary regulations surrounding land management techniques which are enforced by the environment agency which can impose punitive measures (Legislation.gov.uk, 2018).
The lack of appropriate equipment for adequately meeting sustainability standards (Francaviglia et al,2023) and the absence of a standardized nation-wide soil health baseline means that imposing strict quantitative regulations isnât possible at this stage and the data required to incorporate soil health standards into SFIs cannot be adapted for different regions with specific soil degradation challenges (Parliament.uk, 2023). Notwithstanding recent advances in the development of soil health parameters, these issues still present major barriers to making soil sustainability policies effective upon implementation.
References:
Ginzky, H., De Andrade CorrĂȘa, F., Dooley, E., Heuser, I.L., Kameri-Mbote, P., Kibugi, R. and Ruppel, O.C., 2024. International Yearbook of Soil Law and Policy 2022 (p. 331). Springer Nature.
Steinhoff-Knopp, B., Kuhn, T.K. and Burkhard, B., 2021. The impact of soil erosion on soil-related ecosystem services: development and testing a scenario-based assessment approach. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193(Suppl 1), p.274.
Panagos, P., Ballabio, C., Poesen, J., Lugato, E., Scarpa, S., Montanarella, L. and Borrelli, P., 2020. A soil erosion indicator for supporting agricultural, environmental and climate policies in the European Union. Remote Sensing, 12(9), p.1365.
Robinson, D.A. and Lebron, I. (2010). On the natural capital and ecosystem services of soils. Ecological Economics, 70(2), pp.137â138. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.08.012.
Verspecht, A., Vandermeulen, V., De Bolle, S., Moeskops, B., Vermang, J., Van den Bossche, A., Van Huylenbroeck, G. and De Neve, S., 2011. Integrated policy approach to mitigate soil erosion in West Flanders. Land degradation & development, 22(1), pp.84-96.
Legislation.gov.uk. (2018). The Reduction and Prevention of Agricultural Diffuse Pollution (England) Regulations 2018. [online] Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/151/made.
Francaviglia, R., Almagro, M. and Vicente-Vicente, J.L., 2023. Conservation agriculture and soil organic carbon: Principles, processes, practices and policy options. Soil Systems, 7(1), p.17.
Parliament.uk. (2023). Soil health – Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee. [online] Available at: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5804/cmselect/cmenvfru/245/report.html#heading-1 [Accessed 29 Oct. 2024].
Nature on the black market: legal pathways for protecting biodiversity from animal trafficking (Sofia Salas Lopez)
Wildlife trafficking is a major threat to global biodiversity, pushing species toward extinction. This illegal trade includes the smuggling, poaching and capture of endangered species [1] and occurs in an estimated 30% of Natural World Heritage Sites [7]. The estimated value of this illegal trade is between 7-23 billion USD per year [2], making it the fourth-most lucrative illegal business in the world [3] and is now estimated to be growing three times the rate of the world economy [4]. The increase of this crime is directly linked to an increase in invasive species and the spread of zoonotic diseases [5]. Animals are often trafficked for their fur, meat or skin. Affecting some of the most iconic species in the world such as tigers, elephants, bears and pangolins [3]. The pangolin is the most trafficked animal in the world, with 23.5 tonnes of pangolins trafficked in 2021 alone, according to TRAFFIC [8]. This is largely due to the belief in some Asian countries that their scales are medicinal, even when it has been scientifically disproven [6]. A similar case is the one of the tigers, trafficked all over Asia for their perceived medicinal uses, meat, fur and captured for their use in wildlife tourism [3]. Even though wildlife is trafficked across the entire world, South-East Asia is known as the epicentre [5]. Here, the golden triangle is found, an imaginary triangle of land between China, Myanmar and Laos [3]. This is where the highest numbers of illegal wildlife trade occurs and where many international NGOs are focusing their work, such as WWF, TRAFFIC and the UN.
There are however many ways to tackle this problem, one of which are international agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) established in 1973. This international agreement regulates trade of species by designating them categories based on their conservation status. CITES issues around 1.2 million permits per year [10], allowing for legal and controlled trade to occur. However, CITES is not being effective in curbing the trade, as it relies on individual countries to implement their own laws. An example of this is in the UK, where in 2018 the âControl of Trade in Endangered Species Regulationsâ was implemented, which uses command-and-control actions such as bans, restrictions and requiring permits with specifications for the transport of animals and plants. If its laws arenât followed, it can result in fines, confiscation and imprisonment, however these are widely considered not good enough deterrents for criminals [9].
There are also many market-based approaches to regulating trafficking. One of these cases is from China, where in 2020 they officially removed pangolin scales from its official list of approved ingredients in traditional medicine. An important aspect of halting the trade is also a community-based approach. This includes increasing education on the issue, increasing funding for anti-poaching units in affected areas as well as programmes promoting wildlife tourism of animals in their natural habitat, therefore allowing for locals to monetise on conserving the natural environment. All of these strategies should be used in combination to combat this widespread issue.
References:
[1] UNODC (2019). Wildlife, Forest & Fisheries Crime Module 3 Key Issues: Criminalization of Wildlife Trafficking. [online] www.unodc.org. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/wildlife-crime/module-3/key-issues/criminalization-of-wildlife-trafficking.html.
[2] TRAFFIC (2016). TRAFFIC | Illegal Wildlife Trade. [online] Traffic.org. Available at: https://www.traffic.org/about-us/illegal-wildlife-trade.
[3] Poston and Mekong, W.-G. (2017). TOP 10 MOST WANTED. [online] Available at: https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/1406/wwf-greater-mekong-top-ten-report.pdf.
[4] Keskin, B. B., Griffin, E. C., Prell, J. O., Dilkina, B., Ferber, A., MacDonald, J., Hilend, R., Griffis, S., & Gore, M. L. (2023). Quantitative Investigation of Wildlife Trafficking Supply Chains: A Review. Omega, 115, 102780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2022.102780.
[5] Rosen GE, Smith KF. Summarizing the evidence on the international trade in illegal wildlife. Ecohealth. 2010 Aug;7(1):24-32. doi: 10.1007/s10393-010-0317-y. Epub 2010 Jun 4. PMID: 20524140; PMCID: PMC7087942. Access from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20524140/
[6] Jin X, Chua HZ, Wang K, Li N, Zheng W, Pang W, Yang F, Pang B, Zhang M, Zhang J. Evidence for the medicinal value of Squama Manitis (pangolin scale): A systematic review. Integr Med Res. 2021 Mar;10(1):100486. doi: 10.1016/j.imr.2020.100486. Epub 2020 Jul 28. PMID: 32837905; PMCID: PMC7386206. Access from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7386206/
[7] Halting the Illegal Trade of CITES species from World Heritage Sites. WWF report (2017). Available at: https://files.worldwildlife.org/wwfcmsprod/files/Publication/file/5hei86izjg_CITES_FINAL_ENG.pdf.
[8] Traffic.org. (2021). Pangolins – Species we work with at TRAFFIC. [online] Available at: https://www.traffic.org/what-we-do/species/pangolins
[9] Sentencing Wildlife Trade Offences in England and Wales (2016). Available at: https://www.wwf.org.uk/sites/default/files/2017-01/WWF-UK%20Report%20-Sentencing%20wildlife%20trade%20offences%20in%20England%20and%20Wales.pdf.
[10] CITES (2022). Ground-breaking report draws first overall picture of global wildlife trade | CITES. [online] cites.org. Available at: https://cites.org/eng/news/first-world-wildlife-trade-report.
Legal Solutions to the Environmental Harm of Unsuitable Farming Practices (Olivia Phelan)
Introduction
Farming presents an issue for policy as it is both essential and, in its current state, a challenge for the environment. According to the European Environment Agency (EEA) (2024), farming causes 11% of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. The UK has similar statistics, with agriculture accounting for 10% of greenhouse gases according to the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2022). There have been some decreases in greenhouse gases in recent years, with methane emissions reduced by 12% and ammonia emissions reduced by 10%. However, agriculture still accounts for 48% of methane and 87% of ammonia emissions according to data from 2020. These statistics make clear the need for national policy intervention.
Possible Mechanisms of Regulation and Redress
According to the 2023 Farm Practices Survey, (DEFRA, 2024), 32% of farmers feel it is unimportant to consider greenhouse gases when making farm business decisions. This supports Sharmaâs (2024: 280) view that education is essential to getting farmers to comply with environmental regulations and apply for government initiatives. In line with this suggestion, DEFRA could offer optional regional sustainable farming classes.
Financial incentives have also been proven effective in getting farmers to engage in environmental practices (Sharma, 2024). Charities such as WWF do provide them but an expansion of the government scheme, the Sustainable Farming Initiative (SFI), could be an effective strategy in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from farming. The SFI has 20, 000 applications and 13,900 active agreements, emphasising its far-reaching ability to impact farming but it could be more effective if the programme was expanded. Given the far reach of farming, expanding SFI, maybe by advertising it in the aforementioned sustainable farming classes, could have great impacts in terms of reducing greenhouse gases emitted from farms.
References:
European Environment Agency, (2024), Agriculture and Food System, Available at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/agriculture-and-food#:~:text=European%20Green%20Deal.-,Agriculture%20is%20the%20source%20of%2011%25%20of%20all%20greenhouse%20gases,significantly%20from%202000%20to%202021 (Accessed: 3/11/24)
Cairns, A. (2024), âThe Sustainable Farming Incentive: stats to knowâ, Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 3 May, Available at: https://defrafarming.blog.gov.uk/2024/05/03/stats-you-need-to-know-about-the-sustainable-farming-incentive/ (Accessed: 3/11/24)
Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, (2022), Chapter 11: Environment, Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agriculture-in-the-united-kingdom-2021/chapter-11-environment (Accessed: 3/11/24)
Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, (2024), Agri-climate report 2023, Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agri-climate-report-2023/agri-climate-report-2023 (Accessed: 3/11/24)
Sharma, G.K, (2024), âEnvironmental Regulations in Agriculture: A Comprehensive Review of Legal Frameworks and Sustainable Farming Practicesâ, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Innovation and Research Methodology, Vol 2:3: 278-287
WWF, (no date), Sustainable Agriculture, Available at https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/sustainable-agriculture (Accessed: 3/11/24)
Readdressing the Offshore Petroleum Activity Regulations 2005 to reduce environmental degradation in the North Sea (Oscar Dunleavy)
This essay aims to critically evaluate the UKâs existing command and control mechanisms for the oil and gas activity in the North Sea. Consequently, this essay will propose amendments to the 2005 Offshore Petroleum Activities regulations, through eliminating intentional discharge permits and introducing mandatory physical inspections to enforce greater compliance and remove the current climate of self-regulation by companies operating there. These proposals are designed to mitigate environmental harm while avoiding negatively impacting the crucial extraction of oil and gas.
The exploitation of oil and natural gas reserves in the North Sea are an essential component of the UKâs energy security and economy. This market provided ÂŁ20 billion to the UK economy in 2023 and is projected to account for 50% of UK energy into the 2030s[1]. Therefore, North Sea oil and gas exploitation must continue to provide energy security to the UK within the foreseeable future. While North Sea energy is therefore essential in providing affordable energy to the UK, the level of environmental harm caused by the extraction of the oil and gas from the offshore installations has become increasingly serious and has had adverse environmental impact.
To demonstrate the extent of marine pollution, there were 3,145 reported oil spills in the North Sea from January 2011 to May 2024, resulting in 1,331 tonnes of oil polluting the ocean. In addition to oil, there were 3,383 reported chemical spills, resulting in 5,757 tonnes of chemical pollution[2]. Oil discharge permits[3] allow installations to release oil and related chemicals into the sea at a small yet continuous rate[4]. They are a key enabler for oil and gas installations to cause adverse marine pollution. Between 2016 and 2020, there was a 36% increase in oil concentrations in all UK waters and caused by discharges in the North Sea[5]. Substances such as PAHs and heavy metals present in oil discharges can accumulate in animals and act as carcinogens and negatively impact the immune and reproductive systems. This bioaccumulation of chemicals is also a major concern from a human health perspective, as they enter our own food system.
In addition to the intentional discharge of oil and chemicals into the water, the UK government has failed to sufficiently inspect oil and gas installations in the North Sea. The North Sea Transition Authority is responsible for enforcing regulations for all installations in the region. They do not conduct physical inspections of the installations to ensure compliance[6]. This means that companies in the North Sea are left to self-regulate, which enables systematic under-reporting of exceeding discharge permits and other breaches of the OPA 2005 regulations.
Therefore, oil discharge permits need to be readdressed. By lowering in the volume of chemicals that are allowed to be dumped into the water, the rate of marine pollution will be significantly lower. Secondly, a more active NSTA must be created through statute. This will be achieved by mandating physical inspections of installations in the North Sea, that prevents the companies from self-regulating which enables them to subvert regulations. This approach aims to mitigate environmental degradation without restricting economic activity essential to the UKâs energy security.
Bibliography
Baldwin PL, âOffshore Oil: Environmental Impacts on Land and Sea.â (1974) 41 The Science Teacher
Kersley A, ââDeeply Troublingâ Lack of UK North Sea Oil and Gas Monitoringâ (DeSmog12 October 2023) <https://www.desmog.com/2023/10/12/deeply-troubling-lack-of-uk-north-sea-oil-and-gas-monitoring/> accessed 27 October 2024
Ltd MC, âAssessment of Discharges, Spills and Emissions from Offshore Oil and Gas Operations on the United Kingdom Continental Shelfâ (Ospar.org2016) <https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/committee-assessments/offshore-industry/discharges-spills-emissions/country-assessment-reports/united-kingdom/2016-2020-uk/> accessed 26 October 2024
NOAA, âHow Does Oil Impact Marine Life?â (Noaa.gov26 February 2021) <https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oilimpacts.html>
Oceana UK, âSea Slickâ (Oceana 2024) <https://uk.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2024/09/Oceana_Report_DIGITAL_web.pdf> accessed 26 October 2024
OEUK, âNORTH SEA OIL & GAS Unlocking Potential Delivering Energy Security, Securing Jobs, Anchoring the Supply Chain, Reducing Emissionsâ <https://oeuk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/North-Sea-Oil-Gas-Unlocking-Potential-OEUK-May-2023.pdf>
[1] OEUK, âNORTH SEA OIL & GAS Unlocking Potential Delivering Energy Security, Securing Jobs, Anchoring the Supply Chain, Reducing Emissionsâ https://oeuk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/North-Sea-Oil-Gas-Unlocking-Potential-OEUK-May-2023.pdf
[2] Oceana UK, âSea Slickâ (Oceana 2024) <https://uk.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2024/09/Oceana_Report_DIGITAL_web.pdf> accessed 26 October 2024
[3] The Offshore Petroleum Activities (Oil Pollution Prevention and Control) Regulations 2005
[4] Pamela L Baldwin, âOffshore Oil: Environmental Impacts on Land and Sea.â (1974) 41 The Science Teacher.
[5] Ltd MC, âAssessment of Discharges, Spills and Emissions from Offshore Oil and Gas Operations on the United Kingdom Continental Shelfâ (Ospar.org2016) <https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/committee-assessments/offshore-industry/discharges-spills-emissions/country-assessment-reports/united-kingdom/2016-2020-uk/> accessed 26 October 2024
[6] Kersley A, ââDeeply Troublingâ Lack of UK North Sea Oil and Gas Monitoringâ (DeSmog12 October 2023) <https://www.desmog.com/2023/10/12/deeply-troubling-lack-of-uk-north-sea-oil-and-gas-monitoring/> accessed 27 October 2024
The problems caused using trawlers and the consequences for marine ecosystems (Lily Longville)
Introduction
Definition of overfishing- The term overfishing refers to situations where insufficient fishing and defaunation result in declining fish populations [9]. High overfishing damages community structures and fish sizes, resulting from the selective harvesting of species and the bycatching of other species, along with habitat modification as a result of changes in biomass, species composition, and size structure[1]
Definition of trawling- description [2]– otter trawlers and beam trawlers[3]– dredging
Fauna- all living organisms
Benthic- living in or on the seabed[4]
A picture of a lush ecosystem with abundant structure before and after trawling will indeed remind you of a clear-cut forest.[5]
Problems/issues with trawling
Direct- mortality, increased food availability, loss of habitat[6]
Indirect- reductions in total biomass of target fish, affects predators etc and overall seafloor community structure, changes to flow of materials and energy [7]
Bottom trawling reduces the productivity of benthic habitats- Although productivity per unit biomass was higher in heavily trawled areas because of the shift to smaller organisms, overall productivity was lower because of the loss of biomass[8]
Fauna that live in low natural disturbance regimes are generally more vulnerable to fishing gear disturbance[9]
Indirect- nutrient cycling, community structure, ecosystem processes, increased susceptibility to other stressors[10]
Recovery rates- type and extent of the habitat alteration, the frequency of the disturbance compared with natural changes, habitat characteristics, and species and life history characteristics.[11]
Graphs
Solutions
Ecosystem-based management (EBM)[14]
Subsidies[15]
Gear modification[16]
Closed areas- marine protected areas (MPA)
Effort reduction[17]
Fishery managers should evaluate the effects of trawling based on the known responses of specific habitat types and species to disturbance by different fishing gears and intensity of fishing effort, even when region-specific studies are unavailable.
The National Marine Fisheries Service and its partner agencies should integrate existing data on seabed characteristics, fishing effort, and catch statistics to provide geographic databases for major fishing grounds
Management of the effects of trawling and dredging should be tailored to the specific requirements of the habitat and the fishery through a balanced combination of the following management tools.
The regional fishery management councils should use comparative risk assessment to identify and evaluate risks to seafloor habitats and to rank management actions within the context of current statutes and regulations.
Guidelines for designating essential fish habitat (EFH) and habitat areas of particular concern (HAPC) should be established based on standardized, ecological criteria.
A national habitat classification system should be developed to support EFH and HAPC designations.[18]
Hilborn p.103
Bibliography:
Articles-
Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitat (1st ed., National Academy Press 2002)
Fish D and Fish S. a studentâs guide to the seashore. (3rd ed., University Press, Cambridge)
Hilborn R and Hilborn U, Overfishing: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford University Press 2020)
Pham CV and others, âThe Threshold Effect of Overfishing on Global Fishery Outputs: International Evidence from a Sustainable Fishery Perspectiveâ (2023) 8 Fishes 71
Legislation-
Sustainable Fisheries Act (1996)
Reports-
SDG14- overfishing and trawling
[1] Pham CV and others, âThe Threshold Effect of Overfishing on Global Fishery Outputs: International Evidence from a Sustainable Fishery Perspectiveâ
[2] Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitat
[3] Hilborn R and Hilborn U, Overfishing: What Everyone Needs to Know, p.98-99
[4] Fish D and Fish S. a studentâs guide to the seashore.
[5] Hilborn R and Hilborn U, Overfishing: What Everyone Needs to Know, p.99
[6] Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitat
[7] Ibid
[8] Ibid
[9] Ibid
[10] Ibid
[11] Ibid
[12] Ibid
[13] Ibid
[14] Pham
[15] Ibid.
[16] Effects of Trawling and Dredging on Seafloor Habitat
[17] Ibid
[18] Ibid
Chileâs stray dog problem and its impact on native wildlife (Liam Gilchrist)
Stray dogs and the environment. Although they donât seem to be connected, they are, and quite significantly in Chile. With an estimated 3,461,104 stray dogs currently roaming around Chile (SUBDERE, 2022), they have become a significant social and environmental problem. In a country with one of the highest human to dog ratios there is (Garde et al. 2022) where it is estimated that for every 2.4 dogs there is one stray (SUBDERE, 2022), this can become a major environmental issue affecting all kinds of native wildlife as well as human communities. Stray and free-ranging dogs have been responsible for countless attacks on native wildlife all over Chile, and occupy a range of spaces from urban centers to rural areas to beaches. In certain areas, such as beaches and wetlands, dogs have been found to regularly attack birds, with packs focusing generally on larger birds such as pelicans (Bravo-Naranjo et al., 2019), but also harassing shorebirds such as whimbrel (CortĂ©s et al., 2021). Dogs have also been responsible for many attacks on pudĂșs, an iconic deer species, with often fatal consequences (Huerta, 2024). What makes them excellent hunters, and therefore a bigger threat, is that they hunt in packs (as opposed to native predators that are usually solitary) (Rau, 2019). The problem is due to multiple factors and not all free-range dogs are strays. In some areas, people let their dogs roam without supervision (Silva-RodrĂguez et al., 2023) and often in rural areas, this is for livestock protection (SepĂșlveda et al. 2014).
So what exactly can be done to address the problem? There are already two laws in place that relate directly to the issue but are not sufficient. The first, Law 20.380, is in place to ensure food and housing is given to domestic animals and avoid suffering in general (Muñoz, 2023). The second is Law 21.020 which addresses responsible pet ownership, stating that owners must maintain pets in their place of residence and prohibits abandoning them (Sanhueza, 2024). A third regulation was proposed both in 2015 (Villatoro et al., 2019) and 2024 that would classify dogs as an invasive species allowing individuals to hunt them (Dote 2024). This initiative failed due to the ethics of the law. However, the problem is still present. Adoption, sterilization and education campaigns have all been suggested as possible solutions (Muñoz 2023) while transfer of dogs to rescue centers has been considered to tackle stray dogs already present (Bravo-Naranjo et al. 2019). Because of dogâs close relationship to humans, any form of management must also take into account people. This report will explore the possibility of regulation to prevent further growth of the stray dog population and redress to tackle the issue at present.
References:
Bravo-Naranjo, V, Jiménez, R. R., Zuleta, C., Rau, J. R., Valladares, P., Piñones, C. (2019). Selección de presas por perros callejeros en el humedal Estero Culebrón (Coquimbo, Chile). Gayana (Concepción), 83(2), 102-113. https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-65382019000200102
CortĂ©s E.I., Navedo J.G., Silva-RodrĂguez E.A. (2021) Widespread Presence of Domestic Dogs on Sandy Beaches of Southern Chile. Animals. 11(1):161. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11010161
Dote, S. (18/04/2024). El rechazo a la caza de perros asilvestrados en Chile enfrenta a los diputados oficialistas con los ambientalistas. Accessed on 31st October 2024. https://elpais.com/chile/2024-04-18/el-rechazo-a-la-caza-de-perros-asilvestrados-en-chile-enfrenta-a-los-diputados-oficialistas-con-los-ambientalistas.html?event=go&event_log=go&prod=REGCRART&o=cerrado
Garde E, MarĂn-Vial P, PĂ©rez GE, Sandvig EM. (2022) A Review and Analysis of the National Dog Population Management Program in Chile. Animals.; 12(3):228. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030228
Huerta, M. (26/06/2024). El Problema de los Perros Asilvestrados en Chile: Una Amenaza para la Biodiversidad. Accessed on 31st October 2024. https://legadochile.cl/2024/06/26/el-problema-de-los-perros-asilvestrados-en-chile-una-amenaza-para-la-biodiversidad/
Muñoz, I.S.M., (30/05/2023). Cuatro millones de animales sin supervisión: la alarmante crisis del abandono de perros y gatos en Chile. Accessed 31 October 2024. https://laderasur.com/articulo/cuatro-millones-de-animales-sin-supervision-la-alarmante-crisis-del-abandono-de-perros-y-gatos-en-chile/
Rau, J. (2019). Ataque y matanza de aves acuĂĄticas por perros callejeros en un humedal urbano del norte de Chile. Prisma: Revista del Centro de Humedales RĂo Cruces. 11:5.
Sanhueza, V.V., (31/05/2024). Ataques de perros a PudĂșes: una alarma para la conservaciĂłn de la Fauna Silvestre. Accessed 31 October 2024. https://noticias.udec.cl/ataques-de-perros-a-pudues-una-alarma-para-la-conservacion-de-la-fauna-silvestre/
SepĂșlveda M.A, Singer R.S, Silva-RodrĂguez E., Stowhas P., Pelican K. (2014) Domestic Dogs in Rural Communities around Protected Areas: Conservation Problem or Conflict Solution? PLoS ONE 9(1): e86152. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0086152
Silva-RodrĂguez, E. A., CortĂ©s, E. I., Zambrano B., Naughton-Treves L., FarĂas A. A., (2023). On the causes and consequences of the free-roaming dog problem in southern Chile, Science of The Total Environment, Vol 891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164324.
SubsecretarĂa de Desarrollo Regional y Administrativo, EstimacioÌn de la poblacioÌn canina y felina del paiÌs y diagnoÌstico de la tenencia responsable, SubsecretarĂa de Desarrollo Regional y Administrativo, Santiago de Chile.
Villatoro F. J., Naughton-Treves L., SepĂșlveda M. A., Stowhas P., Mardones F. O., Silva-RodrĂguez E. A., (2019). When free-ranging dogs threaten wildlife: Public attitudes toward management strategies in southern Chile, Journal of Environmental Management, 229: 67-75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.035.
The problem with the push to electric cars (Jude Crownshaw)
Governments and private businesses across the world are pushing for a transition from internal combustion engine (ICE) cars into lithium ion battery electric vehicles (BEVs). For example the UK government announced in the 2024 October budget that it would maintain the existing incentives for BEVs [Evison, 2024]. The BEV transition is claimed to reduce negative impacts on the environment, unfortunately, under scrutiny it becomes clear the reputation of BEVs has been severely manipulated by greenwashing. For example it was found that large BEV manufacturer âTeslaâ overlooked several major contributors to its carbon emissions including supply chain emissions when it released its carbon emission figures for 2021 [LeLourec, 2023].
The reality is, the potential for electric cars to be carbon neutral is lower than almost any other car type, including the combustion engine!
8.8 tonnes of CO2 is emitted in BEV production compared to ICE cars at 5.6 tonnes. However across a lifecycle ICE releases 24 tonnes vs 19 tonnes with a BEV [Lakshmi, 2023]. This puts BEVs at an average of 27.8 tonnes of CO2 emitted across its life cycle compared to a marginally higher 29.6 tonnes of CO2 with ICE cars. When considering present technology, synthetic fuels such as HIF globals hydrocarbons, produced from carbon capture and green hydrogen offer a viable carbon neutral method of powering the ICE [Carboncapturemagazine.com, 2023]. This alternative could remove almost all of the 24 tonnes of lifetime emissions without needing to replace the ICE global car stock which is both expensive and co2 intensive in the production stage.
Additionally Hydrogen fuel cell cars (also emission free like BEVs) do not require the harmful Lithium ion batteries which require a polluting mining and manufacturing process as well as the problem of disposing of them after their 8-12 year lifespan is complete [Mcaleer, 2024] [Institute for Energy Research, 2023]. Fuel cells can be fueled with carbon neutral green hydrogen (hydrogen produced using renewable energy powered electrolysis) reducing the lifecycle emissions further. This does raise the question as to why there is a global push to change car stock from ICE to BEV and what could be done to combat it.
The best ways to combat the electric car problem would be to implement command and control regulation and market based regulation. Command and control can combat greenwashing of BEVs by imposing laws which will enforce any misinformation surrounding BEVs. For example fines and prison time could be handed out from the UK government to any company or government official who is found to be manipulating statistics or withholding the truth in regard to CO2 emissions of BEVs.
Market based regulation can be used as a disincentive for BEVs by removing subsidies and tax breaks surrounding BEVs and reintroducing these for synthetic fuels, green hydrogen and hydrogen fuel cell cars.
Reference list:
Carboncapturemagazine.com. (2023). HIF Global, Porsche and Volkswagen Group unveil New DAC unit | Carbon Capture Magazine. [online] Available at: https://carboncapturemagazine.com/articles/hif-global-porsche-and-volkswagen-group-unveil-new-dac-unit [Accessed 31 Oct. 2024].
Evison, J. (2024). Budget 2024: Reeves announces transport and energy funding. [online] transportandenergy. Available at: https://transportandenergy.com/2024/10/30/budget-2024-reeves-announces-transport-and-energy-funding/ [Accessed 31 Oct. 2024].
Institute for Energy Research (2023). Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries. [online] Institute for Energy Research. Available at: https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/environmental-impacts-of-lithium-ion-batteries/.
LeLourec, M. (2023). Tesla and Greenwashing. [online] The GW Point Source. Available at: https://blogs.gwu.edu/law-gwpointsource/2023/12/07/tesla-and-greenwashing/.
Lakshmi, R.B. (2023). The Environmental Impact of Battery Production for Electrical Vehicles. [online] Earth.org. Available at: https://earth.org/environmental-impact-of-battery-production/.
Mcaleer, B. (2024). Electric Car Battery Life: Everything You Need to Know, Including How Long They Last. [online] Car and Driver. Available at: https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a31875141/electric-car-battery-life/.
Command and control mechanisms to encourage sustainable soil practices (William Sibley)
In 2023 the Agriculture Industry of the United Kingdom contributed ÂŁ13.7 billion to the economy and employed 462,100 people making up 1.4% of the UK workforce. It is an industry and way of life which the United Kingdom is rooted in and continues to benefit from. Although it has been the cause of major decrease in biodiversity, with 209,000 farm holdings which used 70% of UK land in 2023 it is clear the environment, economy and what are now considered as farmland wildlife are evermore dependent on soil health.
The UK government has an ambitious goal set for our soil to be sustainably managed and, degradation threats successfully tackled, by 2030. There are a range of legislative protection measures in place, mostly, to prevent/ protect against the damaging effect of soil erosion to water bodies, enforced by the environment agency, and neighbouring land. Even then their enforcement is tied to the payment of agricultural finance schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Scheme and other subsidies, not legal action. The lack of statutory regulation for sustainable management of soils is of great concern. With potentially only 60 arable harvests left urgent action is required to ensure a sustainable agricultural United Kingdom.
This report suggests a 10% decrease in incentives to farmers from the Sustainable Farming Incentive Scheme of which payment to farmers which manage their land without actions such as no tillage farming, precision farming and spring-sown or summer-sown cover crops. Although these actions reduce soil erosion, the aspirational result is to make those actions more profitable than before and reduce the financial viability of intensive farming methods. The Funds are to be redirected, from the government to supermarkets to reduce the price of products grown/ managed from sustainable soils. Consequently, leading to an increase in sales of such products which covers the cost of the incentive reduction to farmers, increasing the money they receive, and it becomes financially viable and profitable to grow foods and manage livestock by methods which are sustainably for our soils.
Furthermore, the action from this market-based approach can be reinforced with legislative restrictions on regular fertiliser use. Currently there are rules, enforced by the Environment Agency, that prevents application of fertilisers when water pollution is considered a likely risk. This doesnât discourage general use of fertilisers or protect the soil directly. A second method of action suggested by this report is a credit system for fertiliser application. This would involve a set number of fertiliser application actions per year based on farm size and crop type. The number of credits can reduce year on year leading to a ban of fertilisers with the exception of emergency measures. This phase out of fertilisers alongside economic subsidies hopes to reduce the incentive to use fertiliser and other intensive methods. As a result, organic fertiliser and sustainable nutrient management is encouraged which results in greater longevity for our soils.
Fast fashion: How the production of textiles pollutes our water systems (Libby Rogers)
With the increase in cheap and accessible clothing online and instore the issues of fast fashion are on the rise. Chains such as Zara and H&M (Kaikobad et al, 2015) have come under fire in the media for pumping out millions of items only for them to end up at the back of the wardrobe or in landfill. Online stores such as Shien (Degli Esposti et al, 2024) have made it so at the click of a button a new cheap item of clothing can be sent straight to your door. The consumers have become unsustainable in their shopping habits and environmental issues relating to this are becoming more harmful (Degli Esposti et al, 2024). Many could argue this is due to the fast spread trends in the media- often called âmicro-trendsâ in which a specific type of clothing stays popular but only for a mere few months, then on to the next new trend (Gallegos 2021).
One of the many issues is relating to water quality in areas where the clothing items are being made, being responsible for one firth of industrial water pollution (Aldalbahi et al, 2021). The textile industry has had issues regarding polluting waters from excess fibres being washed away to dyes entering the water system (NiinimÀki et al 2020). These pollutants have the ability to cause small scale issues in lakes and rivers such as population decline but also effects on human health; these effects seem to be getting more large scale and occurring internationally. However, there is a general lack of compliance in areas such as Bangladesh with mechanisms put in place currently such as installing an effluent treatment plant (ETP), which aims to reduce waste entering the natural environment (Sakamoto et al, 2019). A more local mechanism put in place is in the UK, the Sustainable Clothing Action Plan aims to both reduce waste entering our natural environment including water systems but also challenges consumers opinions and behaviours towards fashion (Maxwell and Williams, 2011). Despite these action plans there is still a failure to impalement real regulation targeting the issue of water pollution due to textiles globally. Ideally a command-and-control mechanism would be the most beneficial. Similar to the polluter pays principle, those factories/companies caught in the act of polluting water ways would have to pay a fine. This should act as a deterrent, and the money fined could be used in trying to reduce the environmental impacts of the textile waste.
References:
Kaikobad, N.K., Bhuiyan, M.Z.A., Sultana, F. and Rahman, M., 2015. Fast fashion: Marketing, recycling and environmental issues.âŻInternational Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention,âŻ4(7), pp.28-33.
Degli Esposti, P., Mortara, A. and Roberti, G., 2024. Unsustainable Fashion: SHEIN and the Fast Fashion Consumption Model.âŻItalian Sociological Review,âŻ14(3), pp.929-951.
Gallegos, M., 2021. New York Fashion Week’s Lasting Effects: Microtrends, Fast Fashion, and Influencer Culture.âŻUWIRE Text, pp.1-1.
Aldalbahi, A., El-Naggar, M.E., El-Newehy, M.H., Rahaman, M., Hatshan, M.R. and Khattab, T.A., 2021. Effects of technical textiles and synthetic nanofibers on environmental pollution.âŻPolymers,âŻ13(1), p.155.
NiinimĂ€ki, K., Peters, G., Dahlbo, H., Perry, P., Rissanen, T. and Gwilt, A., 2020. The environmental price of fast fashion.âŻNature Reviews Earth & Environment,âŻ1(4), pp.189-200.
Sakamoto, M., Ahmed, T., Begum, S. and Huq, H., 2019. Water pollution and the textile industry in Bangladesh: flawed corporate practices or restrictive opportunities?.âŻSustainability,âŻ11(7), p.1951.
Maxwell, D. and Williams, D., 2011. Sustainable Clothing Action Plan, DEFRA (GOV).
Overfishing (Phebe Channon)
Overfishing of our oceans has increased by three times since 1970, from increased consumption demands, Climate change, unregulated subsidies and continuing unregulated illegal fishing (MSC International, 2024). It is estimated that 38% of our world’s fisheries are overfished, and the other 62% are fished to their maximum capacity, leaving detrimental impacts on the ocean biodiversity and ecosystem (WWF, 2020). In The 2018 Oceana SOFIA Report (State Of World Fisheries and Aquaculture), it was concluded that the Mediterranean Sea is the most overfished, with 62% of its fish stock being overfished and at risk of being completely depleted (Gustavsson, 2018). Without our mass, unique diversity in fish species, ocean ecosystems will begin to fail, later making vital contributions to our climate, atmosphere and food supplies (MCS International, 2024).
International organizations such as the UN help to ensure the environment is regulated by all 193 member parties, introducing goals and global regulation strategies that are legally binding. The Sustainable Development Goals addressed the regulation of overfishing, introducing goal 14 (Life Below Water) as of 2015, urging international community to tackle unreported and unregulated fishing by 2020 (UN, 2024). As well as this, the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing (adopted in 1995) sets out principles and international standards to manage and conserve the global marine environment (UN, 2024). However, the code of conduct is only voluntary, with only âstandards of behaviorâ to regulate the overfishing of our oceans, instead of intensive, strict legalities in place. As of The Sustainability Goals 2023 report (UN, 2023), Goal 14.4.1 âEnsure Sustainable Fish Stocksâ had seen no progress since 2020, and 14.5.1 âConserve marine key biodiversity areasâ showed no/limited progress since 2020. The UN has been highly successful in prompting the individual national movements of sustainable marine life and tackling overfishing, by using soft law as it is quicker, easier and sometimes more inclusive (Boyle, 2019). However, the laws can be easily twisted, avoided and too flexible for environmental issues such as catastrophic.
With most internation laws consisting of soft law, to fully tackle overfishing across the globe, hard-international laws need to be put in place, with full interaction from national governance and agreed penalties and punishments put in place. By enduring these hard laws, governments can enforce harder penalties within their countries and reduce overfishing more promptly.
1- What Is Overfishing | Marine Stewardship Council
2- Fighting illegal fishing | WWF
3- UN alert: Mediterranean is worldâs most overfished sea – Oceana Europe
4- What Is Overfishing | Marine Stewardship Council
5- International day against illegal fishing | United Nations
6- EMBARGOED FINAL GSDR 2023-Digital -110923 TC.pdf
Introducing Legal Mechanisms for the Prevention of Overexploitation of Orange Roughy in Namibiaâs Exclusive Economic Zone (Elliot Fisher)
Severe overfishing between 1979 and 2003 resulted in the collapse of Orange Roughy (Hoplosthetus atlanticus) populations leaving the species listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list (Collette et al., 2015).
Many factors make Orange Roughy particularly susceptible to overfishing. Their difficult to access deep-water habitats mean little is known about their population size so calculating a maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is near impossible. They have extremely slow growth rates, a low natural mortality rate and reach sexual maturity between 22 and 40 years (Branch, 2001) meaning juveniles are highly likely to be removed from the population before they can replace themselves. The behaviour of the fish also increases the likelihood of overfishing. During spawning in the winter, the population forms dense aggregations of more than 4000 individuals per hectare (Lorance, Uiblein and Latrouite, 2002). Enhancing technology, such as acoustic surveys, allows industrialised fisheries to detect these dense aggregations and trawl over 70% of the stock (Lack, Short and Willock, 2003).
Orange Roughy is a globally distributed species, occupying deep continental slopes with populations in New Zealand, Australian, Namibian and Irish waters (Branch, 2001). New Zealand has some of the most sustainable fisheries in the world due to detailed acoustic surveys and therefore, their stocks are likely to be exploited at or below the MSY. However, Namibiaâs environmental legislation is much less restrictive to incentivise economic growth.
Many legal loopholes such as flags of convenience have enabled illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing within exclusive economic zones (EEZs). A state may exploit their EEZ of biological and non-biological resources however they see fit. This could include allowing foreign ships to fish, under their flag and therefore law, in return for tax, port access or other benefits (Papaioannou, 2004). This practice is popular for developing nations such as Namibia, proving concerning for the future of Orange Roughy stocks.
This report proposes different legal mechanisms to prevent the overexploitation of Orange Roughy in Namibiaâs EEZ. Command and control mechanisms are concluded as the standard legal mechanism for the overfishing of Orange Roughy, evidenced by the successful implementation of a total allowable catch (TAC) under the Fisheries Act 1996 in New Zealand which incorporates adaptive law as changes in the biomass are discovered. For example, in 2024, there were discussions to reduce the TAC due to unreliable biomass estimates to ensure that the landings were below MSY.
Market based mechanisms such as eco-labelling could support command and control legislation but should not solely be relied upon because eco-labelling companies such as the Marine Stewardship Council have been criticised for certifying potentially unsustainable fisheries (Schiffman, 2012) and these strategies may be more effective in developed nations where consumers have greater opportunities to live sustainably through higher disposable incomes and internet access.
While Orange Roughy arenât as profitable as they once were, legislation should be introduced and updated in the case that demand increases in the future.
Reference List:
Branch, T.A., 2001. âA review of Orange Roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus fisheries, estimation methods, biology and stock structure.â African Journal of Marine Science 23, pp. 181-203
Collette, B., Fernandes, P., Heessen, H., Herrera, J. and Smith-Vaniz, W.F., 2015. âHoplostethus atlanticus (Europe assessment).â The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T155168A45884209.
Lack, M., Short, K. and Willock, A., 2003 âManaging risk and uncertainty in deep-sea fisheries: lessons from Orange Roughyâ TRAFFIC Oceania and WWF Endangered Seas Programme
Lorance, P., Uiblein, F. and Latrouite, D., 2002. âHabitat, behaviour and colour patterns of orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus (Pisces: Trachichthyidae) in the Bay of Biscay.â Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 82(2), pp.321-331.
Papaioannou, M.A., 2004. Fisheries management and flags of convenience (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
Schiffman, H.S., 2012. âCulture, Conservation and Competition: Orange Roughy and the South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organization.â Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy, 15(3-4), pp.187-201.
The global biodiversity collapse (Tristan Egremont-Lee)
Biodiversity can be simply defined as: All the different kinds of life youâll find in one area (1). It is no secret that humans are heavily dependent on biodiversity. I believe the American Biologist and Naturalist E.O. Wilson describes this dependence in a perfect way with a short statement on ants; âwe need them to survive, but they donât need us at all.â (2). This statement is echoed throughout the myriads of biological taxa we have on this earth as many are essential to us as humans because; biodiversity is essential to healthy ecosystems and healthy ecosystems are vital to supporting humans from the food we eat, water we drink and air we breathe (3). Although we as humans have realised the importance of biodiversity, we have not been conducting ourselves in a manner which promotes biodiversity, on the contrary we have been the direct antagonists to this important resource and have caused a global biodiversity collapse. The 2022 global Living Planet Index conducted by the WWF (World Wildlife Fund) and the ZSL (Zoological Society of London) shows an average 69% decrease in relative abundance of monitored wildlife populations between 1970 and 2018 (4).
But there is hope. In recent history this rapid decline has been observed and the importance of halting it has been taken into consideration globally. Evidence for this can be seen in several different places but a prime example is that halting the loss of biodiversity is part of the United Nationsâ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), goal 15.5; âTake urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species.â (5). But recognising the issue is just one of the necessary steps needed to fix the global biodiversity crisis.
There is a variety of mechanisms that are already in place to mitigate the global biodiversity loss some from a regulation standpoint and others from a redress aspect. Some examples of regulatory mechanisms implemented globally to help halt the global biodiversity collapse include the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which is a global agreement signed by 184 parties (6) to regulate or ban the international trade of threatened species. Another example of a regulatory implementation is the COP 15 â 30×30 deal which was signed by 196 countries to achieve effective conservation and management of at least 30% of the worldâs lands, inland waters, coastal areas and oceans, with emphasis on areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and services (7). Some redress mechanisms include value for nature credits which is a new class of nature asset, certifying nature-positive commitments and impacts that can be reported under forthcoming Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) guidelines. These value for nature credits focus more on the biodiversity aspect unlike other nature assets such as carbon credits which focus solely on the carbon capture aspect. In this report I shall go through these regulation and redress mechanisms and more and examine their weight in halting the global biodiversity collapse.
2. Bibliography
Hancock L. What is biodiversity and why is it under threat? [Internet]. World Wildlife Fund. 2024.
Available from: https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/what-is-biodiversity
Chivian E. A Project of the Center for Health and the Global Environment Harvard Medical School
under the auspices of the World Health Organization, the United Nations Development
Programme, and the United Nations Environment Programme Interim Executive Summary
[Internet]. 2002. Available from: https://library.sprep.org/sites/default/files/71_2.pdf
The Royal Society. Why is biodiversity important? | Royal Society [Internet]. royalsociety.org. Available from: https://royalsociety.org/news-resources/projects/biodiversity/why-isbiodiversity-important/
WWF. Building a Nature-Positive Society Living Planet Report 2022 [Internet]. 2022. Available
from: https://www.wwf.org.uk/sites/default/files/2023-05/WWF-Living-Planet-Report-2022.pdf
United Nations. Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
[Internet]. United Nations. United Nations; 2015. Available from:
https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda
CITES. List of Parties to the Convention | CITES [Internet]. cites.org. Available from:
https://cites.org/eng/disc/parties/index.php
Brader C. COP15: Global biodiversity framework [Internet]. House of Lords Library. 2023 [cited
2024 Nov 3]. Available from: https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/cop15-global-biodiversityframework/#heading-2
Legal mechanisms to combat oil pollution in UK waters (Lexie Batten)
Oil pollution is the discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons which, depending on the type, size, and location of the oil spill, can persist in the marine environment for multiple years (Carpenter, 2018). It is a great danger to the health of marine ecosystems, with detrimental environmental impacts such as the mortality of seabirds, invertebrates, marine mammals, and microbial communitiesâ activities (Zhang et al., 2019). Offshore oil spills can be caused by a plethora of sources, this includes tanker operations, or a release of oil from drilling rigs and offshore platforms (Zhang et al., 2019). The total annual volume of oil in the marine environment is unclear but has been estimated by the European Environmental Agency in 2007 to be between 1 and 3 million tonnes, with around 24% caused by marine transport alone (Carpenter, 2018).
The first significant spill disaster occurred between Landsâ End and the Isles of Scilly in 1967, this is known as the Torrey Canyon spill (Carpenter, 2018). With 119,000 tonnes of crude oil spilt, killing over 25,000 seabirds and marine organisms (Wells, 2017), this spill began the investment to research and monitoring oil in the oceans.
Mechanisms are currently in place to regulate oil pollution in the UK, one of the first legislative measures was the 1969 Bonn Agreement which was formed to regulate oil pollution in the North Sea (Carpenter, 2018). International conventions are applicable to this matter in UK waters, this includes the Prevention of Oil Pollution Act 1971. Mechanisms are not only required to prevent oil pollution, but also to clean any occurring spills safely to ensure no further environmental damage can occur. In England and Wales, oil spill clean-up is often the local authoritiesâ responsibility, mainly conducted by the county council and district council (McInnes, 1998). The coastal counties should have set a contingency plan to ensure the clean-up, which includes immediate procedures (McInnes, 1998), however clean-ups may be inconsistent across the counties.
Potential mechanisms which could be used includes the polluter pays principle, in which whoever cause an oil spill pays to clean up the damage. This is not the most ideal method as it will not always discourage illegal discharges of oil and if polluter has more money and can afford to pay, they may continue to pollute with oil. Command-and-control regulations would be more effective, one example may be to introduce a complete ban of oil discharges, rather than a restriction of a 15 parts per million (ppm) oil discharge (Carpenter, 2018).
References:
Carpenter, A. (2018). Oil pollution in the North Sea: the impact of governance measures on oil pollution over several decades. Hydrobiologia, 845(1), pp.109â127. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-018-3559-2.
McInnes, R.G. (1998). Oil pollution â the local authority response in England and Wales. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Municipal Engineer, 127(1), pp.6â12. doi: https://doi.org/10.1680/imuen.1998.30101.
Wells, P.G. (2017). The iconic Torrey Canyon oil spill of 1967 – Marking its legacy. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 115(1-2), pp.1â2. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.12.013.
Zhang, B., Matchinski, E.J., Chen, B., Ye, X., Jing, L. and Lee, K. (2019). Chapter 21 – Marine Oil SpillsâOil Pollution, Sources and Effects. In: C. Sheppard, ed., World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (Second Edition). [online] Academic Press, pp.391â406. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00024-3.
Saving our National Parks: Potential mechanisms to regulate waste generated and deposited in Britanâs national parks (Georgia Standley)
For hundreds of years, Britain has loudly boasted the natural beauty of its idyllic landmarks and unspoiled national parks. However, over recent decades, the nation has faced an epidemic, the sheer amount of litter generated by the growing population reaching an unprecedented amount. With more than 2 million pieces dropped each day, and almost 48% of the population admitting to littering during their lifetime (Planet Earth Games, 2022), it is apparent that this national crisis has reached its peak. According to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2019), litter can best be defined as âsomething that is improperly discarded of by members of the publicâ, and studies have shown that more than 2 million pieces are dropped in the UK each day (Planet Earth Games, 2022). This is reprehensible, and is leading to irreversible damage for Britainâs treasured national parks in particular. Litter takes many years to decompose (which is a toxic process) leaving animals susceptible to disease and making it difficult for them to live/breed naturally (Keep Britain Tidy, 2024). Furthermore, it has now become common place for wildlife to find themselves entangled in plastic bags and similar items, threatening the diversity and population of our national parks (Keep Britain Tidy, 2024).
Principally, the problem of litter is legislated by the Environmental Protection Act 1990 Section 87, which states in summary that, âa person is guilty of an offence if he throws down, drops or otherwise deposits any litter in any placeâ. In support of this, government published their Code of Practice for Litter and Refuse (2019), which outlines the expectations and practices which duty bodies must conform to. When reflecting on statute law, the conservative government of 2022 to 2024 published their own documentation on the environmental harm, whereby they advocated for the increase of fines for littering and the ringfencing of receipts for FPNâs (DEFRA, 2024).
However, the offence of littering is criticised, most notably for its lack of clarity regarding classification and the unserious approach to prosecuting. As a summary offence, offenders are most commonly punished with on-the-spot fines, which are hardly enough to deter society from committing (UK Parliament, n.d.). Both command-control mechanisms â prescribes limits and bans (S Bell, 2024) and market-based methods of regulation â an economically incentivised solution (S Bell, 2024) could be utilized to improve the law and consequently save our landscape from litter before its too late. To tackle the mass amount of waste produced by large corporations, the government could look to introduce a tax on businesses which will force them to reflect on their processes and reduce excess waste on an industrial scale. Furthermore, the command and control technique could be implemented to place a ban on excessive packaging. By tacking the producers of frequently littered items, we could stop the act before it has even begun. In terms of littering by individuals, local institutions could look to increase fines and even go as far as to threaten legal action in their areas in order to deter people from littering.
Bibliography:
Environmental Protection Act, S87
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/43/contents
Priestly, S. (2017). Litter. (House of Commons Library Briefing Paper CBP06984). https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06984/SN06984.pdf
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. (2019). Code of Practice on Litter and Refuse. (PB11577b). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5d8b766ded915d0372f8ac59/pb11577b-cop-litter1.pdf
Pow, R and Coffey, T. (2023). Bigger fines possible for littering and fly-tipping. Gov.uk.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/bigger-fines-possible-for-littering-and-fly-tipping
Hulme, K and Davey S et al. (2020). Litter Law. The Countryside Charity.
https://www.cpre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/CPRE-Litter-Law-Report.pdf
Keep Britain Tidy. (2024). Plastics Impact on Wildlife. https://www.keepbritaintidy.org/get-involved/support-our-campaigns/plastic-challenge/impact-wildlife
Peak District National Park. (2020) Extreme litter picking in the Peak District National Park. https://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/learning-about/news/archive/2020-press-releases/news/extreme-litter-picking-in-the-peak-district-national-park#:~:text=As%20Covid%2D19%20restrictions%20have,underway%20to%20target%20problem%20areas.
Bell, S, McGillivray D, Pedersen O, Lees E, & Stokes E. (2024). The regulation of environmental protection. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780192847690.003.0007
Perfectly Imperfect: The implementation of an âugly vegâ market and the reduction of food waste (Cosette Holley)
Beauty standards are not a uniquely human phenomenon. The aesthetic standards in the produce industry (specifically fruits and vegetables) have partially resulted in ââŠalmost half (45%)⊠[of the total food produced being] wastedâ (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018). This produce, whilst being perfectly safe, healthy, and viable, is wasted as a direct result of structural standards dictated by the economic market. The direct effects of the gross surplus of food are detrimental to the environment, and with just one of the side effects being, â60-80% of biodiversity lossâ being caused by food-production related agriculture, the reduction of food waste is pertinent to the future health of the planet (WRAP, 2023). This report aims to convey the possibility of a decrease in fruit and vegetable waste through the implementation of market-based regulations in combination with command-and-control regulation mechanisms within British agriculture and food-consumption markets.
Major supermarkets around Britain in the last decade have engaged in the âwar against wasteâ by the selling of âwonky vegâ and âimperfect produceâ, but have done so only on a small scale (Hanson, 2016) (Vaughan, 2015). And although there is a private market relating to âugly veg’, such as weekly/monthly subscription boxes and meal plans, the issue of food waste is extensive, and there is a dire need for such an industry to be imposed on a wide scale. What this report suggests is that a potential solution to the surplus could be the encouragement of the emergent market for âugly vegâ, in addition to the implementation of strict and enforced allowable limits on food waste both in the on-farm and consumer sectors.
Firstly, from a command-and-control regulatory perspective, it is crucial that there are strict allowable limits on the amount of total food waste created. This could be quantified in many ways, such as total mass of a singular crop or total volume per annum, but adaptive measures will certainly need to be implemented depending on the size and scale of the producer (Hezarkhani et al, 2023). By the emergence of such a market, there would be a larger portion of âwasteâ going back into the average humanâas it wouldnât be waste at all, which is a key aspect of the âFood and drink material hierarchyâ; a model released by WRAP for the House of Commons in 2023 (House of Commons, 2023) (House of Commons, 2017) (WRAP, 2023). By focusing on the humanistic sector of the system, (located in the prevention section) it encourages positive and responsible consumerism, and enforces the idea of restricting the creation of waste before it even emerges (WRAP, 2023).
The emphasis of purchasing power of the individual in addition to implementing command-and-control mechanisms, allows for aspects of market-based regulatory systems to emerge; resulting in a potential dynamic solution to some food waste issues in Britain. Focusing on responsible consumerism via public participation and eco-labelling strategies in tandem with allowable limits yields a positive outcome, one that champions biospheric egalitarianism and the implementation of circular economies and sustainable development.
Reference list:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2018). Beauty (and taste!) are on the inside. [online] Available at: https://www.fao.org/newsroom/story/Beauty-(and-taste!)-are-on-the-inside/en [Accessed 29 Oct. 2024].
Gustavsson , J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson , U., van Otterdijk, R. and Meybeck, A. (2011). Global Food Losses and Food Waste. [online] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available at: https://www.fao.org/4/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf.
Hanson, C. (2016). Tesco and Others Lend a Helping Hand to Fight Food Waste. www.wri.org. [online] Available at: https://www.wri.org/insights/tesco-and-others-lend-helping-hand-fight-food-waste.
Hezarkhani, B., Demirel, G., Bouchery, Y. and Dora, M. (2023). Can âugly vegâ supply chains reduce food loss?. European Journal of Operational Research, 309(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2023.01.033.
House of Commons (2017). Food waste in England Eighth Report of Session 2016-17 Report, together with formal minutes relating to the report by authority of the House of Commons. [online] Available at: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmenvfru/429/429.pdf.
Vaughan, A. (2015). Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall rejects Morrisonsâ âpatheticâ wonky veg trial. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/nov/09/hugh-fearnley-whittingstall-rejects-morissons-pathetic-wonky-veg-trial.
Preserving Ocean Life: Strategies for mitigating the impacts of Overfishing (Harvey Mountford)
Overfishing has become an increasingly vital environmental issue, spiking a decline in marine biodiversity and marine life populations. It is thought of as too many people fishing for a low number of fish available (Finkbeiner et al., 2017). The overexploitation of fish stocks can generate dramatic impacts on marine ecosystems and food webs. Fish are being depleted quicker than their natural recovery time, posing a severe threat to global food security, food chains and the health of our oceans (Valentine and Heck, 2005). Additionally, this overexploitation can affect coastal communities which are heavily dependent on fish as the source of their diet. As mentioned by one study, over 80% of fish stocks are at or beyond the point of sustainable exploitation levels (Emanuelsson et al., 2014). At present, it is estimated that 40 to 70% of fish stocks in European waters are facing challenges that contribute to their instability (Issifu et al., 2022). Existing management practices and policies are falling short of ensuring the long-term safety of our marine fish populations and ocean health, destabilising food webs and biodiversity. To address overfishing it is important to consider all scales of prevention. Local, national and international levels. Command and control-based methods include the establishment of Marine Protected Zones (MPAs) is an effective measure which creates zones where fishing is restricted or prohibited. Implementing and strictly enforcing quotas is crucial for the preservation and sustainability of the species in question. An Example of this is the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) (E. Boon, 2013). Market-based methods such as Ecolabeling also initially highlight a sustainable way and raise awareness of fishing however reduce the act of overfishing. In addition to these preventative measures, several redress mechanisms are being applied to reverse the impacts of overfishing. Monitoring and enforcement tools including satellite surveillance, compliance with regulations and potential subsidies will help regenerate and encourage sustainable fishing. A combination of methods in different sectors e.g. Command and control and Market-based methods are also affected in regulating sustainable fishing practices. In conclusion, overfishing is a complex and significant issue. Various approaches, including incentives, no-take zones, MPAs, and fishing quotas, aim to protect the future of our oceans. However, these efforts have their limitations, as we can never fully know what occurs outside the boundaries of the law, and enforcing regulations on every single boat and catch is challenging. Future discussions will focus on analysing and assessing the effectiveness of these methods, as well as their impact on specific regions and species.
Reference list :
E. Boon, K. (2013). OVERFISHING OF BLUEFIN TUNA: INCENTIVIZING INCLUSIVE SOLUTIONS. [online] Heinonline.org. Available at: https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/branlaj52&id=17&men_tab=srchresults [Accessed 2 Nov. 2024].
Emanuelsson, A., Ziegler, F., Pihl, L., Sköld, M. and Sonesson, U. (2014). Accounting for Overfishing in Life Cycle assessment: New Impact Categories for Biotic Resource Use. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 19(5), pp.1156â1168. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0684-z.
Finkbeiner, E.M., Bennett, N.J., Frawley, T.H., Mason, J.G., Briscoe, D.K., Brooks, C.M., Ng, C.A., Ourens, R., Seto, K., Switzer Swanson, S., Urteaga, J. and Crowder, L.B. (2017). Reconstructing overfishing: Moving beyond Malthus for Effective and Equitable Solutions. Fish and Fisheries, 18(6), pp.1180â1191. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12245.
Issifu, I., Alava, J.J., Lam, V.W.Y. and Sumaila, U.R. (2022). Impact of Ocean Warming, Overfishing and Mercury on European Fisheries: A Risk Assessment and Policy Solution Framework. ProQuest, [online] 8. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.770805.
Valentine, J.F. and Heck, K.L. (2005). Perspective Review of the Impacts of Overfishing on Coral Reef Food Web Linkages. Coral Reefs, 24(2), pp.209â213. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-004-0468-9.
Solution to wastewater in the UK (Amy Phipps)
With the increase in population and urbanisation the need for food and pressure on infrastructure like water and sewage systems create problems with waste. As farmers need more crops, the use of pesticides and fertilisers increases creating run off from farms impacting the rivers and ecosystem around them. With changing climate, flooding becomes more common causing an increase in wastewater and the release of sewage into UK rivers.
In the UK, water companies are allowed to release sewage into rivers and the ocean in heavy rain periods to stop the sewage going into peopleâs homes, however, there has been an increase in undocumented and illegal spills. In the year 2023 alone, there was an increase of 54% of sewage release from water companies. These together can have damaging effects on the ecosystem and more importantly to human health. The increase in fertilisers cause algal bloom and eutrophication which can be devastating to biodiversity. Human health is also at risk from sewage water and the number of illnesses tripled in 2022 compared to 2021.
Every storm overflow is now 100% monitored with devices required by the government to record the release of overflow sewage. In the Environment act 2021 under Part 5 Water – 82 monitoring the water after the overspill is crucial to make sure thereâs less risk to human health and warning to citizens especially with the growth in wild swimming. Currently however there is little to no laws to charge water companies with illegal dry spills and not much being done to prevent it or reduce it from happening. Currently water companies must declare when there is a breach of their permit, this then it is investigated but there is little prosecution happening to them. With only 3 individuals that have been criminally prosecuted, it is clear that more direct action is needed to stop the illegal spills. With more news and more outrage from UK citizens it is clear that more action and definitive law is needed with immediate effect to stop more damage to the ecosystem and to humans.
Indoor Air pollution In London: A Crucial Oversight in Government Policy (Tommy Higgins Higgins)
Introduction:
In 2020, after 7 years of fighting, a court ruling declared that the death of nine-year-old Ella Kissi-Debrah was caused directly by exposure to air pollution (Barlow, 2021). The young girl from southeast London became the first person to have air pollution as her official cause of death in the UK. Four years after the decisive ruling air pollution is still the environmental problem with the largest risk to human health in the UK, with the UK government estimating between 28,000 and 36,000 premature deaths due to air pollution annually in the UK (GOV UK, 2022). People from lower-income families are more vulnerable to air pollution-related illnesses with more proximity to traffic and lower-quality housing. This has led to a disproportionate level of illnesses such as respiratory (Atkinson et al., 2015) and cardiovascular disease (Pope et al., 2011), and correlations between air pollution in low-income areas and mental illnesses, such as depression (Braithwaite et al., 2019) and schizophrenia (Horsdal et al., 2019).
While policy in London has begun to tackle vehicle pollution, with the rollout of ULEZ to all London boroughs in 2023 (Broster and Terzano, 2024), there is still much to be done. Especially as the crucial issue of indoor air pollution has been massively overlooked and under-utilized in policy. Household air pollution was responsible for an estimated 3.2 million deaths in 2020 (World Health Organization, 2023). Low-income households are most at risk from air pollution-related illnesses, poorer quality housing, and spending more time indoors (Ferguson et al., 2021). Policy changes are needed to ensure that low-income families are not living in homes that are killing them.
This report will delve into how policy can ensure that all social housing and low-income homes are adequately ventilated, with working extractor fans and carbon monoxide monitors, as well as, providing more green spaces and opportunities in low-income neighbourhoods for outdoor activities. This will serve to increase air quality and people out of their homes and into nature, decreasing their time spent indoors and increasing ambient air quality.
Reference list:
Atkinson, R.W., Analitis, A., Samoli, E., Fuller, G.W., Green, D.C., Mudway, I.S., Anderson, H.R. and Kelly, F.J. (2015). Short-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and daily mortality in London, UK. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 26(2), pp.125â132. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2015.65.
Barlow, P. (2021). ANNEX A REGULATION 28: REPORT TO PREVENT FUTURE DEATHS (1) REGULATION 28 REPORT TO PREVENT FUTURE DEATHS THIS REPORT IS BEING SENT TO: 1. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Defra 2. Department for Transport. [online] Available at: https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Ella-Kissi-Debrah-2021-0113-1.pdf.
Braithwaite, I., Zhang, S., Kirkbride, J.B., Osborn, D.P.J. and Hayes, J.F. (2019). Air Pollution (Particulate Matter) Exposure and Associations with Depression, Anxiety, Bipolar, Psychosis and Suicide Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, [online] 127(12), p.126002. doi:https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp4595.
Broster, S. and Terzano, K. (2024). A Systematic Review of the Pollution and Health Impacts of Low Emission Zones. SSRN. [online] doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4945295.
Ferguson, L., Taylor, J., Zhou, K., Shrubsole, C., Symonds, P., Davies, M. and Dimitroulopoulou, S. (2021). Systemic inequalities in indoor air pollution exposure in London, UK. Buildings and Cities, [online] 2(1), p.425. doi:https://doi.org/10.5334/bc.100.
GOV UK (2022). Air pollution: applying All Our Health. [online] GOV.UK. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/air-pollution-applying-all-our-health/air-pollution-applying-all-our-health.
Horsdal, H.T., Agerbo, E., McGrath, J.J., VilhjĂĄlmsson, B.J., Antonsen, S., Closter, A.M., Timmermann, A., Grove, J., Mok, P.L.H., Webb, R.T., Sabel, C.E., Hertel, O., Sigsgaard, T., Erikstrup, C., Hougaard, D.M., Werge, T., Nordentoft, M., BĂžrglum, A.D., Mors, O. and Mortensen, P.B. (2019). Association of Childhood Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide and Polygenic Risk Score for Schizophrenia With the Risk of Developing Schizophrenia. JAMA Network Open, [online] 2(11), p.e1914401. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.14401.
Pope, C.A., Burnett, R.T., Turner, M.C., Cohen, A., Krewski, D., Jerrett, M., Gapstur, S.M. and Thun, M.J. (2011). Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality Associated with Ambient Air Pollution and Cigarette Smoke: Shape of the ExposureâResponse Relationships. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(11), pp.1616â1621. doi:https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1103639.
World Health Organization (2023). Household Air Pollution and Health. [online] who.int. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health.
A comprehensive report for how the implementation of Adaptive Law and the use of a national redress mechanism can reduce the environmental impacts to water pollution from the disposal of nuclear waste from Nuclear Reactors after the production of electricity, in the UK (Sarah Jane Holden)
The disposal of nuclear waste is the most environmentally harmful process of the creation of electricity from Nuclear Reactors. The radioactivity remains hazardous for thousands of years, causing risks of soil contamination, water pollution and airborne contaminants, which all lead to biodiversity loss. However, nuclear reactors in the UK have been active since 1956 and now contribute to around 15% of the National Grids electricity generation. And so, the current legal mechanisms are extensive when focusing on command and control; permits, planning laws and technical specifications follow strict and corporate liability laws. Many organisations such as the Environmental Agency carry out checks to ensure permit conditions are met, with Environmental Impact Assessments and National Policy Statements for providing framework to implement new nuclear facilities.
This report will look specifically into the current redress mechanisms globally used to track radioactive pollution to water and the detrimental effects this causes to aquamarine life. Are the current legal mechanisms sufficient to support the increasing capacity of nuclear in the UK? How can mechanisms that were used after catastrophic incidents like Chernobyl be reimplemented and reformed to a national level to suit ongoing pollution caused from the UK sites like Hinkley Point? While there must be strict limits to radioactive discharge, adaptive law can be used to create an on-going redress mechanism to facilitate adaptions to complexed community governance, climate change and location-specific ecosystems. The biodiversity in the coast and bodies of water in the UK is vast, the balance of the protection against climate change from the use of fossil fuels and the environmental concerns that then arise from the implementation of nuclear reactors in order to counteract this, need to be stabilised.
This report will aim to specifically lay out these key points; a description and advocacy for the environmental problems itself, an overview of the current laws around the disposal of nuclear waste, the current redress mechanisms to reduce water pollution caused by this, how adaptive law has been used for alike cases, how community engagement can be used and the taboo over nuclear energy, how adaptive law can be used and at what point does the radiation become a nuclear crime and who holds liability.
References to use:
Laws around water pollution and why they donât work (Phoebe Mann)
Pollution of the UKâs waterways is an ongoing threat to the environment despite the regulations that are in place to minimise it. This article will discuss both the sources of this pollution, the regulations around them, and what needs to be done to avoid these problems reoccurring.
The sewerage system is a major factor in water pollution in the UK, last year (2023) there were over 1000 discharges a day from various water companies (Beesley, 2023). During periods of heavy rainfall, this type of release is permitted as it stops sewage backing up into homes and gardens when the sewerage system is full. Permits are part of the command-and-control regulations used to minimise the damage that water companies have on the environment. When companies do not comply, they are faced with a fine however this has been proven inadequate as these fines are cheaper than the repairs and upgrades needed, resulting in companies breaking the law and paying the fines instead of using the money to improve the system to stop overflows from happening.
An example of this is South West Water (SWW) who was fined ÂŁ2,150,000 and ordered to pay ÂŁ280,170 in costs after pleading guilty to âsix offences of illegal discharge activities and seven offences of contravening environmental permit conditionsâ (South West Water fined more than ÂŁ2.1m over sewage pollution, 2023). This sum is nothing compared to the companyâs revenue which amounted to 566.4 million pounds in 2023 (South West Water Limited Annual Report and Financial Statements 2023, 2023).
Sewage is not the only pollutant causing damage to the UKâs waterways. Agricultural runoff also plays a large part in polluting rivers and lakes. Agricultural runoff is when precipitation or irrigation does not infiltrate the soil, instead running over the surface picking up pollutants like soil, fertiliser, and pesticides on the way and depositing them into the surrounding waterways. There are many negative effects of these pollutants. For example, the added fertiliser causes rapid growth of algae in the lake resulting in an algal bloom, this bloom starts the process of eutrophication as oxygen is reduced for the other plants and animals, effectively killing the lake.
The environment agency provides guidance on its website on how and when to apply fertiliser to fields. If you are found to be breaking the rules, which is unlikely as the resources are not there to check on you, then instead of having a consequence like a fine, you simply get told to change what you are doing. This does not incentivise farmers to make environmentally friendly decisions and therefore not enough is being done.
Beesley, A. (2023). Read the 2023 Water Quality Report by Surfers Against Sewage. [online] Surfers Against Sewage âą Water Quality Report 2023. Available at: https://waterquality.sas.org.uk/.
South West Water fined more than ÂŁ2.1m over sewage pollution. (2023). BBC News. [online] 26 Apr. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-65403267.
South West Water Limited Annual Report and Financial Statements 2023. (2023). Available at: https://www.southwestwater.co.uk/siteassets/documents/about-us/annual-reports/2023/annual-report-and-financial-statements-2023.pdf.
Legal solutions to reduce pollution in New Dehli (Adam Duthie)
New Delhi ranks as the third most polluted city in the world, with a PM2.5 level 16 times greater than the air quality recommended by the OMS. Measures to reduce particulate matter, including the vehicle dress rule to restrict traffic, a pollution control tower, rain provocation, and a pure air programme, have had limited effect. Reasons include excluding non-VIP males driving a private or diesel car; winter fuel burning; diesel energy generators, and the domestic burning of coal and wood.
There exists a shortage of academic comparative literature about legal mechanisms adopted by New Delhi and other megacities in emerging economies, such as Beijing. Thus, this report aims to propose legal solutions Delhi could implement to reduce particulate matter further based on the effectiveness of legal mechanisms adopted in megacities in other emerging economies.
The effectiveness of legal mechanisms in reducing particulate matter designates the levels of PM2.5 reduced thanks to legal mechanisms implemented. The legal mechanisms to reduce matter include:
This work uses academic, peer-reviewed articles on these legal mechanisms implemented in urban China and the levels of particulate matter they reduced between the 2010s and 2020s.
Chinese examples of command-and-control mechanisms include The Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan and the Three-Year Action Plan for Winning the Blue-Sky Defence Battle (2017-2020). Emissions taxes include the Environmental Protection Tax Law and subsidies and ETS implemented between 2009-15.
This work finds that command and control mechanisms reduce the most particulate matter, followed by ETS and emissions taxes in urban China.
This work demonstrates that command and control mechanisms were most successful in reducing particulate matter within urban China, which suggests that New Delhi should concentrate on the former to deal with its particulate matter.
Combating Air Pollution in UK Urban Communities (Lauren Peters)
Air pollution in the United Kingdom poses significant environmental and public concerns for urban communities in the United Kingdom. Urban settlements see higher exposure levels to air pollution than any other type of settlement due to denser populations and higher energy demands in order to keep up with the population. It is primarily driven by sources such as industrial discharge, vehicle emissions and the combustion of fossil fuels for domestic energy use. Yet, these are only a few examples. These sources of pollution do not only degrade air quality by producing harmful airborne contaminants but also pose great threats to public health. Air pollution contributes to up to 43,000 premature deaths every year in the UK (Friends of the Earth, 2024). Beyond health concerns, air pollution in urban UK communities also contributes to environmental degradation by enhancing global warming through the release of greenhouse gases, damaging natural ecosystems through the depositing of acids, as well as altering local weather patterns (Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, 2024). These factors all impact the stability and welfare of urban communities. This report will explore the range of feasible mechanisms available to combat the issue of air pollution in urban communities in the UK, focusing on market-based mechanisms (like congestion charges) and command and control regulations (such as low emission zones). Addressing air pollution is a necessity, not only for improving public health, but also economic and environmental sustainability. By analysing effective prevention and mitigation strategies, this report will present an integrated approach on how to reduce air pollution and its impacts, benefiting both current and future generations in the UK and its urban communities.
Legal Mechanisms for the prevention of Light Pollution in the United Kingdom (Edwin Lanyon)
Contents:
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It is a sad fact that because of artificial lighting, many children will never see the Milky Way as they grow up.
Light pollution is unwanted and unneeded artificial lighting that causes disruption and harm. It causes distress to animals and disrupts natural cycles.
Currently, forms of regulation and redress that aim to protect against light pollution include statutory nuisance law, set out under Section 102 of the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act (2005), giving local councilâs environmental health departments power to take action against disruptive lights that are âprejudicial to health or a nuisanceâ.
However, this current legislation is largely ineffective as it only covers light pollution originating from premises, meaning widespread light pollution sources such as street lighting are not included, and the impact on wildlife is not considered (CPRE, 2023).
Here, we find that setting legal standards of lighting colour, intensity and use would constitute better solutions to address the threats light pollution poses to human and animal wellbeing. Turning off or dimming lights during times they are not used reduces much of the induced harm, while saving energy. Regulation of the qualities, use patterns and angles of lights can reduce many of the impacts, while maintaining the function of lighting (Schroer and Hölker, 2017). Thus, researching ways of reducing light pollution without negative associated effects, and the legal implementation of these is recommended.
These suggestions fit with the paradigm shift towards adaptive forms of environmental law that are holistic and integrated into wider law, allowing socially, economically and environmentally sustainable reduction of environmental impacts. The suggestions follow the principles of environmental law, as they call for legislation to rectify light pollution at its source, to prevent the environmental harm and to precaution against the potential unknown effects it may have (Client Earth, 2019).
2. Introduction
Artificial light has become essential to modern society, allowing activities to continue outside of daylight hours, providing safety measures, and constituting decorations. Floodlighting of sports facilities enables more fixtures to be played, while lighting commercial premises and advertising boards attracts more customers and trade. Street lighting allows the safe movement of pedestrians and vehicles, which improves the night time economy, and has been proven to reduce crime and accidents (Cox, 1972). Thus, exterior lighting proves a viable investment, which has seen its proliferation. However, light pollution can disrupt people and nature, reducing quality of life by disturbing sleep. It impacts diurnal cycles and can cause species to become out of synchronisation with their surroundings. Natural ecological rhythms such as feeding patterns, migration, and reproduction are affected, causing confusion to bats and birds. Exposure to nocturnal lighting disrupts the bodyâs production of the hormone melatonin, which resets peoplesâ biological clocks daily (Longcore, 2004).
Light trespass is where light shines outside of the property it is intended to light, which can cause a local nuisance, while sky glow is the large-scale illumination of the night sky around towns, caused by scattering of light by airborne particles (Pembrokeshire County Council, 2017).
Word count: 499
References:
Cases
Legislation
Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005 (/2024) Legislation.gov.uk. Accessed: .
Section 79 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990
Bibliography:
Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005 (/2024) Legislation.gov.uk. Accessed: .
Client Earth (12/03/2019) What are environmental principles? Www.clientearth.org. Accessed: 2nd November 2024 .
Cox, K.T.O., 1972. Value for moneyâexterior lighting. Lighting Research & Technology, 4(4), pp.236-242.
Longcore, T. and Rich, C., 2004. Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2(4), pp.191-198.
Pembrokeshire County Council (06/09/2017) Light Pollution. Pembrokeshire.gov.uk. Accessed: 2nd November 2024 .
Schroer, S. and Hölker, F., 2017. Light pollution reduction. Handbook of Advanced Lighting Technology; Karlicek, R., Sun, C.-C., Zissis, G., Ma, R., Eds, pp.991-1010.
Switching off our street lights (10/03/2011) Transport Business. Accessed: 2nd November 2024 .
What is light pollution, and how can you take action about it? (29/03/2023) Campaign to Protect Rural England. Accessed: 2nd November 2024 .
Wilson, A. (09/12/2021) Dark Skies Above West Penwith Officially Recognized with the Prestigious International Dark Sky Park Designation. DarkSky International. Accessed: 2nd November 2024 .
The use of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones in protecting water bodies from agricultural pollution in the United Kingdom (Lucy-Anne Sargeant)
Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZ) are areas of land at risk from waters polluted by agricultural nitrate run off as designated by the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (Nitrate Regulations 2015; Johnson et al 2023). Nitrate run off poses a great risk to the environment impacting the safety of humans and ecological welfare. Consumption of nitrates in water by humans can lead to illness such as blue baby syndrome (Infant Methemoglobinemia), higher risks rates of certain cancers, and thyroid disease (Ward et al 2018). Increased concentration in water bodies allows for eutrophication where rapid formation of algal blooms from the excess nutrient reduce oxygen concentration in the water body and a total reduction in biodiversity at the site (Johnson et al 2023). UK legislation for NZVâs was updated by âThe Nitrate Pollution Prevention Regulations 2015â to allow DEFRA to designate land areas for protection which were to be reviewed every four years and establishing a safe limit of 50mg/l of nitrates. Further legislation was made for England by âThe Reduction and Prevention of Agricultural Diffuse Pollution (England) Regulations 2018â which requires farmers to: assess the pollution risks of their land, plan applications of fertiliser in accordance with these risks, conduct soil tests of land before applying to use any fertiliser, risk assess any stored manure, and take reasonable precautions against soil erosion. Specific timing and tonnage of manure or fertiliser application is controlled, especially for land with environmental benefits (high species richness, or sites of special scientific interest). Failure to comply with these regulations to prevent water bodies from surpassing the safe threshold may lead to prosecution and face monetary penalties (Nitrate Regulations 2015; Agricultural Diffuse Regulations 2018). The effectiveness of NVZâs was found lacking, with elevated levels of nitrates still found in UK rivers by 2022, although there has been a decreasing trend from 2008 (Johnson et al 2023).
References:
Johnson.H, Simpson.E, Troldborg.M, Ofterdinger.U, Cassidy.R, Soulsby.C, et al, (2023), Drinking Water Nitrate and Human Health: An Updated Review, Environments
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6068531/
The Nitrate Pollution Prevention Regulations (2015)
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/668/contents
The Reduction and Prevention of Agricultural Diffuse Pollution (England) Regulations (2018)
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/151/contents/made
Ward.M, Jones.R, Brender.J, de Kok.T, Weyer.P, Nolan.B, et al, (2018), Evaluating Groundwater Nitrate Status across the River Ythan Catchment (Scotland) following Two Decades of Nitrate Vulnerable Zone Designation Environmental Research and Public Health.
https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10040067
Restoring the Oceans: Legal mechanisms to reduce plastic pollution of the oceans surrounding the Philippines (Isobel Shepherd)
The ocean is currently being treated as a bin for plastic waste (Wabnitz and Nichols, 2010). By 2025, plastic waste in the environment is estimated to reach 11 billion tons (Brahney et al., 2020) and during 2015 the Philippines was the third largest contributor to this globally (Cosme, 2022). Plastic pollution poses a serious threat for ecosystems in coastal and marine locations (Thushari and Senevirathna, 2020), highlighting the demand for appropriate legislation to be put in place to assist change and provide better management of plastic waste.
Plastic is formed from many small particles known as microplastics (Frias and Nash, 2019). Microplastics are comparable in size to plankton and other feeding matters of marine animals (Thushari and Senevirathna, 2020), therefore animals may confuse it with their regular food source and ingest it. Ingestion of microplastics causes harm to the marine life as it can result in reduced food absorption and reproductive failure (Azzarello and Van Vleet, 1987). As a result, there is a dire need for effective legislation to help restore the health of the ecosystem and avoid secondary issues such as pollution in the human food chain.
Currently, there is legislation to help reduce the issue of plastic pollution within the oceans surrounding the Philippines. The Extended Producer Responsibility Act 2022 (EPR) introduces the idea that the manufacturer should be mindful of the whole life cycle of the product. In theory this act would help reduce excessive plastic pollution of the oceans as the end stage of the plasticâs life and itâs environmental impact has to be considered. However, in practice this law has several shortfalls. Firstly, it is only applicable to large enterprises (Cosme, 2022) and not all producers. Secondly, the act encourages correct waste collection and recycling, instead of focusing on reducing production (Cosme, 2022). As a result, plastic pollution in the Philippines is still a major environmental problem. It would be beneficial for the act to be used in conjunction with a command-and-control mechanism.
In an attempt to combat the issue, legislation in the form of command-and-control should be implemented. Command-and-control involves setting clear limits and boundaries to clarify which activities are permitted and which are banned. A clear outline of quality of plastic should be provided as the molecular structure of the plastic influences whether it is recyclable (Hahladakis and Iacovidou, 2018). Legislation should be implemented to clarify the type of plastic that can be manufactured to ensure it can be recyclable and ban unrecyclable plastic. If the material is recyclable, then further legislation can be put in place to manage the rest of the plasticâs life cycle, for example it’s disposal. However, this is an important first step as without it the unrecyclable plastic will likely end up in landfill (Hahladakis and Iacovidou, 2018).
Overall, plastic pollution of the oceans is a complex issue, requiring clear regulations to create a positive change. Command-and-control mechanisms, like banning poor quality plastic, will be beneficial to combat the issue in the Philippines, as it will increase production and use of sustainable disposable plastic and reduce the plastic in the ocean.
Reference list:
Azzarello, M. and Van Vleet, E. (1987). Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 37, pp.295â303. doi: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps037295.
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Brahney, J., Hallerud, M., Heim, E., Hahnenberger, M. and Sukumaran, S. (2020). Plastic rain in protected areas of the United States. Science, [online] 368(6496), pp.1257â1260. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz5819.
Cosme, A.L.L. (2022). Philippines: How the Philippines Deals with Marine Litter. Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy, [online] 7(2), pp.300â306. doi:https://doi.org/10.1163/24519391-07020008.
â
Frias, J.P.G.L. and Nash, R. (2019). Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 138(138), pp.145â147. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.022.
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Hahladakis, J.N. and Iacovidou, E. (2018). Closing the loop on plastic packaging materials: What is quality and how does it affect their circularity? Science of the Total Environment, [online] 630, pp.1394â1400. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.330.
â
The Extended Producer Responsibility Act 2022
Thushari, G.G.N. and Senevirathna, J.D.M. (2020). Plastic pollution in the marine environment. Heliyon, [online] 6(8). doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709.
â
Wabnitz, C. and Nichols, W. (2010). Editorial: Plastic Pollution: An Ocean Emergency. [online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wallace-Nichols/publication/268187066_Editorial_Plastic_Pollution_An_Ocean_Emergency/links/54c622550cf256ed5a9c8f3c/Editorial-Plastic-Pollution-An-Ocean-Emergency.pdf.
Draft report: 300-500 â Environmental Regulation and Redress (Ella Teague)
Word count: 383
Rising sea levels is one of the most significant environmental challenges on a global scale, which has been caused by two major factors: the increase in the volume of water due to rapidly increasing levels of melting ice (caused by the dramatic increase in the world temperature), and therefore the expansion of seawater as it warms (Lindsey, 2023). The environmental catastrophes that this causes are endless: from habitat loss to increased flooding and public health impacts, the continuous rise in sea levels affects every aspect of human life. However, it is a disaster that has been brought to the international political stage since the 1980s via the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (Wendebourg, 2023), and yet despite the significant warnings from the past decades, there has arguably been very little to heed the increasing sea levels. The growing increase of 3.6mm per year (NASA, 2023) has established a profound mandate of calls for stronger international legal instruments to be used. Despite the current legal mechanisms that have been created that include tackling this issue such as the Paris Agreement of 2015 which pledged to cut back the creation of emissions to net zero by 2050 and minimising of the rising of global temperature by 1.5 degrees (Mengel et al., 2018), the majority of legal framework is created as a reactionary measure rather than a preventative and allows for the sovereignty of international states to override any environmental goals that the international political community is trying to achieve, which can be demonstrated by Trump pulling the US out of this agreement, one of the biggest contributors to the factors causing rising sea-levels (Zhang et al., 2017). Therefore, it is evident that on an international scale, more needs to be done via stronger legal instruments to safeguard future generations and minimise the unforgiving catastrophes caused by the ever-growing rising sea levels. In this report, I will discuss the recentring of international political decisions, whether it be policies or agreements, that need to be created with an ecocentric, rather than the current anthropocentric nature which allows the nation-stateâs economic desires to control whether they adhere to the environmental policies, and establishing whether there is the possibility of the creation of international legal instruments that allow for nation-states to be held accountable.
Reference list:
Lindsey, R. (2023). Climate Change: Global Sea Level. [online] Climate.gov. Available at: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level.
Mengel, M., Nauels, A., Rogelj, J. and Schleussner, C.-F. (2018). Committed sea-level rise under the Paris Agreement and the legacy of delayed mitigation action. Nature Communications, 9(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-02985-8.
NASA (2023). Sea Level | NASA Global Climate Change. [online] Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Available at: https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/?intent=121 [Accessed 26 Oct. 2024].
Wendebourg, M.R. (2023). Interpreting the Law of the Sea in the Context of Sea-Level Rise: The Ambulatory Thesis and State Practice. Journal of Environmental Law. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqad024.
Zhang, Y.-X., Chao, Q.-C., Zheng, Q.-H. and Huang, L. (2017). The withdrawal of the U.S. from the Paris Agreement and its impact on global climate change governance. Advances in Climate Change Research, [online] 8(4), pp.213â219. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accre.2017.08.005.
The Biggest Environmental Problem of All: Why Doesnât Environmental Law Work? (Jacob Ribbens)
To perhaps oversimplify, if environmental law worked effectively, the state of the country, not least the world, would not be in the mess that we find it today: rivers wouldnât be so dirty; fishing stocks would be recovering properly; governments would be held to account over their Net Zero pledges; new renewable energy developments would take precedence over oil fields; lobbying would be curbed to protect the environment from detrimental interests; international meetings, such as COP, would actually produce something other than hot air. The list goes on.
It’s very easy to sit here and say the system is broken, but surely environmental law can, and has worked? The example that is paraded around like some sort of panacea is the Montreal Protocol (1987)1. Ratified by 198 parties, CFCs were quickly and effectively banned, and the ozone layer has since shown evidence of recovery2,3. While undeniably successful, it is one of a very small number of examples which have made a significant difference on a large scale, alongside the Antarctic treaty (1959)4.
On the other hand, environmental law often has significant issues which can fall through the cracks of regulation. One of the most glaring limitations can be found across the rivers and water bodies of the UK. One of the best publicised environmental issues in the country, it symbolises one of the biggest shortcomings within the legal system: permitting. The current paradigm is such that a certain amount of harm is seen as inevitable, which is an understandable but not ideal baseline, and beyond that, companies can pay for permits to pollute further. As with most market-based solutions, this has a disproportionate effect across stakeholders: those with most money are able to pay for more permits, so can get away with more. To add insult to injury, when the law is broken, punishment is slow and often has little consequences for the corporations which are liable. For example, in 2024, Southern Water were fined just ÂŁ330,000 for 20 hours of sewage discharge, in 2019 â 5 years earlier â which killed 2,000 fish5. While admittedly not very feasible, in an ideal world, no pollution would be permitted, and punishments would be strong enough to actually prevent environmental harm.
On the theme of insufficient punishment, wildlife protection in this country is sorely lacking. For example, birds of prey, including golden eagles, have legal protection: it is against the law to deliberately kill a raptor. This, however, doesnât stop the practice of shooting or poisoning the birds to protect livestock. In fact, over 1,300 hen harriers were killed in 2023, more than any other year, and thatâs just one species6. The punishments are so poor â one (yes, ONE) person has been sentenced to prison in the last 15 years â that there is essentially no incentive to protect the birds6. Reforming punishments across our environmental legal system needs to be a priority if the law is to serve its purpose.
References:
United Nations. Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer, (1987)
Goyal, R., England, M. H., Sen Gupta, A. & Jucker, M. Reduction in surface climate change achieved by the 1987 Montreal Protocol. Environmental Research Letters 14, (2019).
United Nations Environment Programme. All ratifications, available at: https://ozone.unep.org/all-ratifications, accessed 2/11/1024 (2024)
United Nations. The Antarctic treaty, (1987)
Morris, S. Southern Water fined ÂŁ330,000 for stream pollution that killed 2,000 fish. The Guardian, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/feb/27/southern-water-fined-330000-for-stream-pollution-that-killed-2000-fish?ref=biztoc.com, accessed 2/11/2024 (2024)
Horton, H. More hen harriers killed in UK during 2023 than in any other year, RSPB says. The Guardian, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/oct/22/more-hen-harriers-killed-in-uk-during-2023-than-in-any-other-year-rspb-says, accessed 2/11/2024 (2024)
AlmerĂaâs Sea of Greenhouses (Aisla MacDonald)
Position
In the semi-arid coastal plain of AlmerĂa province in southeastern Spain lies Europeâs highest concentration of greenhouse horticulture (Castro et al., 2019), often described as a “sea of plastic.” Greenhouse production in AlmerĂa began in the 1960s, and it has since become the largest concentration of greenhouses in the world (Castro et al., 2019). This rapid development, combined with inadequate land-use planning, has stimulated significant socioeconomic growth in the coastal region, resulting in one of the most substantial land-use transformations in Europe (Ruiz-Nieto 2022).
However, this transformation poses a serious threat to native biodiversity (Ruiz-Nieto 2022). The greenhouse agriculture in AlmerĂa also contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, which need to be addressed. Meanwhile, the region plays a vital role in the local economy and the European food supply chain, raising important concerns about sustainability (RodrĂguez Medina, 2024). AlmerĂaâs greenhouse horticulture faces major challenges due to an unprecedented demand for agricultural production. This increased demand places pressure on natural resources, requiring difficult trade-offs between food security and environmental sustainability (Castro et al., 2019).
Problem
The European Green Deal, introduced in 2020, aims to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050. This plan involves laws and financial commitments from the EU and Member States, and policy actions include changing agricultural practices. (Bell et al. 2024).
In an assessment of the implementation of the European Green Deal in Almeriaâs greenhouse agricultural sector, RodrĂguez Medina (2024) identifies three main challenges that are contributing to high levels of non-compliance in the region:
References:
Bell, S., McGillivray, D., Pedersen, O.W., Lees, E., Stokes, E., n.d. 6. The European Union and the environment, in: Environmental Law. Oxford University Press, pp. 140â173.
Castro, A.J., LĂłpez-RodrĂguez, M.D., Giagnocavo, C., Gimenez, M., CĂ©spedes, L., La Calle, A., Gallardo, M., Pumares, P., Cabello, J., RodrĂguez, E., UclĂ©s, D., Parra, S., Casas, J., RodrĂguez, F., Fernandez-Prados, J.S., Alba-Patiño, D., ExpĂłsito-Granados, M., Murillo-LĂłpez, B.E., Vasquez, L.M., Valera, D.L., 2019. Six Collective Challenges for Sustainability of AlmerĂa Greenhouse Horticulture. IJERPH 16, 4097. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214097
Medina, M.C.R., n.d. THE CHALLENGE UNDER PLASTIC: GREEN POLICIES IN THE MECCA OF GREENHOUSES.
Ruiz-Nieto, Ă., GĂłmez-Serrano, C., AciĂ©n, G., Castro, A.J., 2022. Farmersâ Knowledge and Acceptance of Microalgae in AlmerĂa Greenhouse Horticulture. Agronomy 12, 2778. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112778
Illegal deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest: local legal mechanisms for crucial ecosystem protection (Hannah Hughes)
The Amazon Rainforest, located within eight countries in South America, is currently being deforested at an alarming rate. Despite this occurring for several decades so far, and also having gained substantial attention and concern across the world, there is very little to no effective legislation that protects the rainforest. Therefore, it is imperative that something is developed rapidly, with the future of our natural world in mind. Deforestation takes place for purposes that include agriculture, infrastructure development and logging; just to name a few. The trees are cleared to make space for livestock, crops, roads and buildings, and to provide an abundance of wood too. However, this reckless and often illegal deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest has detrimental impacts for our climate, biodiversity and beyond. Therefore, this report will investigate this deforestation crisis and propose the most effective legal mechanisms to limit the negative tree-clearing practices, meanwhile ensuring the economic needs and the initial drivers of the illegal deforestation are addressed; such as by ensuring farmers always have sufficient area to operate efficiently. A balance between the environment and anthropogenic/economic needs is vital for the future of the Amazon Rainforest, and other natural areas like it, as it ensures there is no need for harmful activity by providing people like farmers with alternative options. By using a selection of market-based mechanisms to create a scheme that will incentivise deforesters to instead protect the Amazon, the impacts of tree-clearing can be reduced meanwhile the economic benefit not only remains but is further improved. And by also utilising some degree of community governance the voices of important local communities who have a unique knowledge of their homes are heard â which can be precious in crafting schemes like this, meanwhile chances of conflict and objection are greatly decreased too.
Fishing for solutions: Legal measures to combat overfishing (Nathan Swan)
Overfishing is becoming an increasing concern, for not only the United Kingdom but the whole world. This environmental issue is caused when fish stocks are harvested at unsustainable rates, and the breeding population becomes to depleted to recover. With over 3 billion people relying on fish as a primary source of protien (5), the stakes are high, especially in lower-income countries where subsistence fishing is vital. This issue also threatens ocean wildlife and biodiversity by reducing an integral marine species in the ecosystem. Driven by a high seafood demand from increasing population and more people transitioning into middle class, the worlds demand for fish is predicted to double by 2050 (2) while 80% of the worlds fisheries are already fully exploited or overexploited (3).
The main way to combat overfishing are through command and control methods. An example of these are protections on fish stocks in the UK with MPAs (marine protected areas) providing an area for fish stocks to breed and grow. For example, in 2003 the area around Lundy Island became the first No Take Zone in the UK (4) which prohibits all forms of fishing, therefore boosting the populations for the surrounding area. The UK has also developed the Fisheries Act of 2020, which enforces catch quotas based on scientific advice to ensure sustainable stocks. While these efforts help, challenges remain. Enforcement of these quotas and protected areas is hard, with vast areas of sea needed to be patrolled by minimal resources and corruption of enforcers. These problems are more prolific in lower income countries for example Sierra Leone, with only one police patrol boat and with government officers with a monthly salary of $50 they are âeasy to buyâ. (5)
Market based methods are also used, but these are often less effective in regulating sustainable fishing practices. For example, Hadjimichael M, Hegland T (6) show that ecolabeling products through certification schemes, such as the MSC (Marine Stewardship Council), aim to influence consumers by marketing products from âsustainable fisheriesâ. While these labels do encourage awareness, they donât directly prevent overfishing as they rely on demand rather than enforceable limits on fishing. Additionally, these schemes are costly and therefore favour large commertial fisheries that easily afford the fees whereas smaller, local fisheries may be excluded.
In conclusion, combating overfishing is a huge and complex task. Command and control methods like complete bans in No Take Zones to quotas on fishing effort and total allowable catch offer direct solution but are difficult to enforce with many gaps in protection. Market based solutions, such as ecolabeling raise consumer awareness and may cause fishermen to adopt more sustainable practices. Nevertheless, it still has its draw backs, benefiting large corporations. Ultimately, overfishing likely requires a combined approach that uses both enforcement and market driven incentives, including other regulatory laws, (that will be mentioned in the further text) to ensure effective and widespread change.
References:
1. WWF. Sustainable Seafood | Industries | WWF [Internet]. World Wildlife Fund. 2019 [cited 2024 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/sustainable-seafood
2. Vaughan A. Global demand for fish expected to almost double by 2050 [Internet]. New Scientist. 2021 [cited 2024 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.newscientist.com/article/2290082-global-demand-for-fish-expected-to-almost-double-by-2050/
3. The World Counts. The World Counts [Internet]. www.theworldcounts.com. 2023 [cited 2024 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/planet-earth/oceans/overfishing-statistics
4. Rees S, Sheehan E, Reynell S, Hooper G. Lundy; studying the ecological effects of a No Take Zone 19 years after designation [Internet]. University of Plymouth. 2021 [cited 2024 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/research/marine-conservation-research-group/lundy-studying-the-ecological-effects-of-a-no-take-zone-19-years-after-designation
5. Skrdlik J. Survival at Stake: Sierra Leoneâs Fishermen Pay the Price for Government Inaction on Illegal Industrial Trawlers [Internet]. OCCRP. 2023 [cited 2024 Oct 28]. Available from: https://www.occrp.org/en/feature/survival-at-stake-sierra-leones-fishermen-pay-the-price-for-government-inaction-on-illegal-industrial-trawlers
6. Hadjimichael M, Hegland TJ. Really sustainable? Inherent risks of eco-labeling in fisheries. Fisheries Research. 2016 Feb;174:129â35.
Addressing Pollution and Over-Extraction in the Gaza Stripâs Coastal Aquifer Basin (Luke Evans)
The Coastal Aquifer Basin in the Gaza Strip (CABGS) is the primary freshwater source for over two million residents, supporting essential agriculture and industry. However, severe pollution and over-extraction, exacerbated by regional conflicts, political complexities, and weak enforcement, have rendered 90-95% of the aquiferâs water unfit for human consumption, posing significant public health risks and undermining ecological and economic stability (Lazarou, 2016).
Regulatory frameworks like the Oslo Accords mandate cooperative water management, yet geopolitical constraints and limited resources hinder the Palestinian Water Authorityâs (PWA) ability to address ongoing pollution and over-extraction in the CABGS effectively. In politically complex regions, Bernauer (1997) emphasises the critical role of robust legal frameworks in managing shared resources, and how effective resource management can aid conflict resolution.
Case studies also demonstrate the importance of including conflict resolution mechanisms within transboundary agreements. For example, in the Indus Waters Treaty (1960), which has survived periods of tension between India and Pakistan, conflict resolution provisions have allowed both states to adhere to water-sharing obligations, despite ongoing political challenges. Similar mechanisms within water management agreements in the Gaza Strip could help the PWA enforce regulations while maintaining compliance and stability under adverse conditions.
In the absence of enforceable, comprehensive agreements, CABGS degradation persists, escalating public health crises and regional instability. This situation calls for an interim legal mechanism to mitigate pollution and overuse until sustainable frameworks are established.
The polluter-pays principle, as exemplified by the European Unionâs Water Framework Directive, imposes fines on polluters proportional to their environmental impact, with revenue directed toward funding water infrastructure and regulatory enforcementâresources critically needed to address Gazaâs water crisis. This approach offers a practical, enforceable solution to reduce pollution while fostering local cooperation and trust as a foundation for long-term solutions.
Implementing a polluter-pays system in Gaza could equip the PWA with necessary funds for wastewater treatment, monitoring, and enforcement, directly targeting contamination in the CABGS. Although this strategy has the potential to significantly reduce pollution, its success hinges on initial investments in enforcement mechanisms and effective coordination with local municipalities and industries to ensure compliance and minimize resistance.
In conclusion, the polluter-pays principle represents a viable and financially sustainable mechanism for Gaza, enabling the resolution of immediate pollution challenges while establishing a regulatory framework that supports the sustainability of CABGS. By gradually decreasing aquifer contamination, Gaza can progress toward comprehensive, long-term solutions that effectively address its complex environmental and geopolitical water issues.
The UK`s fly-tipping problem (Joel Watson)
Fly-tipping is where waste is illegally deposited onto land [BBC, 2017]. The land needs a license to accept the waste [BBC, 2017]. Waste can come from a several sources, such as households and industrial sites, and it can also be solid or liquid [Smith, 2020]. Fly-tipping is a problem because it can harm the environment. For example, some of the materials in the waste can be classified as hazardous (such as chemicals), and the waste can pose a threat to polluting waterways [Purdy et al., 2022]. Private landowners who receive this unwanted waste are impacted as they have to remove it, or they could be prosecuted (under the Environmental Protection Act 1990) [Prior, 2024]. Fly tipping mainly takes place on highways but also covers many places such as footpaths and council land [Purdy et al., 2022].
The current legislation in place to help tackle fly-tipping is the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (section 33) [GOV.UK, 2016]. Fly-tippers can be prosecuted using this act and could face an unlimited fine or 5 years in prison [GOV.UK, 2016]. This section of the environment Act is a command-and-control mechanism, and this is due to its clear statements on what is considered illegal and the potential punishments [European Environment agency, 1988]. Also, the punishment aspect of this mechanism can act as a deterrent, helping to reduce fly tipping [Forrester and Ruiz, 2024].
Some people have fly-tipped more than once (and on a regular basis), and stopping these people will be key to reducing the amount of fly-tipping in the UK [Purdy et al., 2024]. CCTV can be used to catch people in the act and it provide evidence to prosecute them and also act as a deterrent [Parker, 2024]. Community governance can help tackle fly tipping, for example, neighbourhood watch groups act as surveillance and report illegal activity [Ourwatch.org.uk, 2021. These watch groups can help identify fly-tipping hotspot areas and raise awareness of the problem to local people [Ourwatch.org.uk, 2021]. Overall, a well-enforced command and control mechanism and community governance are some ways to help reduce fly-tipping in the UK.
References:
Fly-tipping: What you wanted to know. (2017). BBC News. [online] 20 Oct. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-41685102
Smith, L. (2020). Fly-tipping -the illegal dumping of waste. [online] Available at: https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN05672/SN05672.pdf
âPurdy, Ray & Borrion, H. & Ekblom, Paul & Tompson, Lisa & Galvin, John & Fouquet, Roger. (2022). Fly-tipping: Drivers, Deterrents and Impacts (Technical report for Defra). Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361261033_Fly-tipping_Drivers_Deterrents_and_Impacts_Technical_report_for_Defra
Prior, M. (2024). Fly-tipping forces landowners to turn farms into âfortsâ. BBC News. [online] 17 Jan. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-68007087
âGOV.UK. (2016). Fly-tipping: council responsibilities. [online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/fly-tipping-council-responsibilities
European Environment Agency (1998). command-and-control â European Environment Agency. [online] www.eea.europa.eu. Available at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/help/glossary/eea-glossary/command-and-control
Forrester, L. and Ruiz, C. (2024). Classical Theories of Criminology: Deterrence. oercollective.caul.edu.au. [online] Available at: https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/criminology-criminal-justice/chapter/classical-theories-deterrence/
Parker, S. (2024). CCTV & prosecutions as fly-tipping starts to reduce in Wiltshire. BBC News. [online] 13 Mar. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cmjmx70nz34o
â Ourwatch.org.uk. (2021). Fly-tipping | Neighbourhood Watch Network. [online] Available at: https://www.ourwatch.org.uk/fly-tipping
Deforestation on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Lizzie Foster)
Short introduction to environmental problem/ harm
Vancouver Island has extensive forested areas, including coniferous species such as Western hemlock, silver fir and western red cedar. However, the island has suffered unsustainable levels of logging since the start of the 20th century (Harding. K. A,1993). This has resulted in a loss of 85% of the original ancient forest which has been replaced with plantations. Some consider these forests a renewable resource, however many of these trees take up to 80 years to regrow to a harvestable size once they have been cut down (Norse, Elliot. A, 1998). During this time, the ground surface is exposed and becomes vulnerable to soil erosion, leading to significant loss of soil. In places, this leaves bare rock, making it almost impossible for a forest to regrow and recover. Studies on the Northern side of Vancouver Island, in the Benson Valley, have shown that deforestation causes far more soil erosion over limestone rock, compared to areas with volcanic rock. Steeper slopes also suffered more extensive soil loss (Harding. K.A,1993). Linked to the issue of soil erosion, deforestation causes an increased risk of landslides, with many recent events being clearly linked to areas of intense logging. This occurs due to a lack of analysis on the terrain stability (Goetz.J.N, Guthrie. H, 2015). Finally, this deforestation has been seen to dramatically increase ground surface temperatures on Vancouver Island. Studies completed on the southern side of the island found that heat used for transpiration in forests constitutes about 10% of the net radiative heat flux at the surface. This heat becomes surplus due to deforestation. When this forest is unable to grow back due to soil erosion, this can lead to a long-term increase in ground surface temperature (Lewis. T, 1998).
Indication of possible mechanisms of prevention and/or redress
A potential solution to this problem would be to introduce command and control techniques in the form of strict bans. Extensive analysis has already been carried out on Vancouver Island, showing that areas with limestone rock and steeply sloped patches are the most vulnerable to post-logging soil erosion. These areas will therefore be stripped down to bare rock, making it almost impossible for the forest to regrow. If we can categorize the island into high and low vulnerability zones, we can enforce a strict ban on logging in the high vulnerability zones, imposing a large fine for companies who do not comply. This should decrease the environmental damage caused by the logging industry and ensure that where the logging is carried out, the forest can more effectively regrow and recover.
Community governance will also be a key element when working to prevent unsustainable deforestation on Vancouver Island, particularly with the islands indigenous people. This community will understand the island and will have seen the effects of recent logging. They will therefore be motivated for change.
Evidence to support your findings (academic papers and legislation)
References:
Harding, K,A (1993), âImpacts of primary deforestation upon limestone slopes in northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia,â Environmental Geology, October 16, Available at; Impacts of primary deforestation upon limestone slopes in northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia | Environmental Geology (oclc.org)
Goetz, J.N, Guthrie, H (2015), âForest harvesting is associated with increased landslide activity during an extreme rainstorm on Vancouver Island, Canada,â Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, October 16, Available at; Forest harvesting is associated with increased landslide activity during an extreme rainstorm on Vancouver Island, Canada – Document – Gale Academic OneFile
Lewis, T (1998), âThe effect of deforestation on ground surface temperatures,â Global and Planetary Change, October 16, Available at; The effect of deforestation on ground surface temperatures – ScienceDirect (oclc.org)
Ekers, M (2020), âThe coloniality of private forest lands: Harvesting levels, land grants, and neoliberalism on Vancouver Island,â Canadian Geographies, October 16, Available at; The coloniality of private forest lands: Harvesting levels, land grants, and neoliberalism on Vancouver Island – Ekers – 2021 – Canadian Geographies / GĂ©ographies canadiennes – Wiley Online Library
Norse, Elliott. A (1989), Ancient Forests of the Pacific Northwest, Island Press, October 17, Available at; Full details and actions for Ancient forests of the Pacific Northwest (vlebooks.com)
Protecting the Great Barrier Reef: Legislative Measures and Market-Based Mechanisms to Reduce Coral Bleaching (Amelie Ash)
Since the 1980s, the Australian Institute of Marine Science has been observing and tracking mass bleaching across the Great Barrier Reef, the most biodiverse marine ecosystem in the world. As of 2024, an aerial survey revealed that 73% of reefs in the Great Barrier Reef have extensive coral bleach damage (Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2024). Coral bleaching refers to changes in conditions such as temperature, which cause the corals to become stressed and subsequently expel the microscopic algae living under their tissues, turning them completely white (National Ocean Service, 2024). Prolonged bleaching predisposes corals to disease and starvation, risking their lives. The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change (Hancock, 2024) and anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Global warming and a rising sea temperature (risen by 1 °C over the past 100 years (NASA, 2024)) causes the coral to drive out algae. Bleaching also occurs due to pollution, low tides or too much sunlight.
Various national legislations and international agreements are in place to protect reefs from coral bleaching, primarily focusing on tackling the root causes of coral stress: climate change and pollution. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act was introduced in 1975 in response to public concern and focuses on providing âlong-term protection and conservation of the environment, biodiversity and heritage values of the Great Barrier Reef Regionâ (Queensland Government, 2020). The Act indicates a framework designed to protect and manage reefs from coral bleaching by banning mining and petroleum extractions, designating specific zones for permitted activities, and implementing management tools (Environmental Law Australia, 2022). The 2015 Paris Agreement, consisting of 195 countries, set long-term goals and provides a durable framework to guide all nations to sustainably reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to keep the global temperature increase to below 2 °C (United Nations, 2015). This temperature restriction is vital for the survival of the Great Barrier Reef, as research projects that below a 1.5°C rise in global warming, coral reefs have a higher chance of survival (Dunne, 2022).
However, beyond such legislation from the United Nations, efforts are also underway to promote the use of market-based tools, putting a price on climate-damaging activities (BMUB, 2017). Market-based mechanisms such as carbon taxes and the cap-and-trade systems provide fiscal incentives for producers to reduce carbon emissions and shift to renewable energy sources (Parry, 2019). Taxes generated can be directed towards coral conservation efforts, focusing on regions such as Australia, which relies heavily on fossil fuel industries and is also home to the Great Barrier Reef. Another market-based programme that could be introduced in Australia is a Coral Reef insurance policy. First launched in Fiji in 2024, the insurance policy provides âpre-agreed payouts for ecosystem repair and restoration based on the occurrence of pre-established parametersâ (The Nature Conservancy, 2024). These schemes are funded through tourism-related businesses that depend on reef health, and payouts are used to help restore and mitigate long-term reef damage. Conservation tourism is another market-based mechanism structured to directly fund reef conservation efforts. With over 2 million visitors annually (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2024), the revenue generated through tourism can contribute to conservation efforts and protection from coral bleaching in the Great Barrier Reef.
In conclusion, I believe a focus on market-based mechanisms and conservation schemes through tourism would be the most effective at protecting the Great Barrier Reef from coral bleaching. While national legislation and international agreements can be effective, their main priority is mitigating global warming rather than restoring and conserving specific ecosystems such as the Great Barrier Reef.
References:
Australian Institute of Marine Science. (2024). Coral bleaching events. AIMS. https://www.aims.gov.au/research-topics/environmental-issues/coral-bleaching/coral-bleaching-events
Dunne, D. (2022, February 1). Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds. Carbon Brief. https://www.carbonbrief.org/last-refuges-for-coral-reefs-to-disappear-above-1-5c-of-global-warming-study-finds/
Environmental Law Australia . (2022). Environmental Law Australia | Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (Cth). Environmental Law Australia. http://envlaw.com.au/great-barrier-reef-marine-park-act-1975-cth/
Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB). (2017). Carbon Pricing Using Market-based Mechanisms to Mitigate Climate Change. https://www.bmuv.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/treibhausgasemissionen_en_bf.pdf
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2024). Tourism visitation data | gbrmpa. Gbrmpa.gov.au. https://www2.gbrmpa.gov.au/help/tourism-visitation-data
Hancock, L. (2024). Everything You Need to Know about Coral Bleachingâand How We Can Stop It. World Wildlife Fund; WWF. https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/everything-you-need-to-know-about-coral-bleaching-and-how-we-can-stop-it
NASA. (2024). How long have sea levels been rising? How does recent sea level rise compare to that over the previous centuries? NASA Sea Level Change Portal. https://sealevel.nasa.gov/faq/13/how-long-have-sea-levels-been-rising-how-does-recent-sea-level-rise-compare-to-that-over-the-previous/
National Ocean Service. (2024, June 16). What Is Coral bleaching? Noaa.gov; NOAA. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html
Parry, I. (2019, June). Back to Basics: What is Carbon Taxation? â IMF F&D. International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2019/06/what-is-carbon-taxation-basics
Queensland Government. (2020). Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 | State of the Environment Report 2020. Www.stateoftheenvironment.des.qld.gov.au. https://www.stateoftheenvironment.des.qld.gov.au/biodiversity/management-responses/legislation/great-barrier-reef-marine-park-act-1975
The Nature Conservancy . (2024, February 14). Insuring Nature to Ensure a Resilient Future. The Nature Conservancy. https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-insights/perspectives/insuring-nature-to-ensure-a-resilient-future/
United Nations. (2015). The Paris Agreement. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/paris-agreement
Plastic on our plates: possible mechanisms towards eliminating single-use packaging for British supermarket produce. (Kaelin Van Rooyen)
Plastic pollution is ubiquitous in our soils, water and wildlife around us (Dhairykar et.al, 2022). With even foetuses now facing exposure to microplastics (Liu et al., 2023), it is a of public health concern and a national priority to reduce our plastic consumption. Plastic disposal by incineration and landfill is not an effective solution to unnecessary plastic use, as it creates further danger to world health (Demetrious and Crossin, 2019) therefore eliminating it from our nation is the only solution.
Despite single-use plastic packaging on unprocessed fruits and vegetables offering no substantial protection to their quality, there is an epidemic of packaged produce in British supermarkets. The Big Plastic Count discovered that across 100,000 households, in one week, nearly 1 million pieces of fruit and vegetable plastic packaging was discarded (Greenpeace and Everyday Plastic, 2022). The UK Plastic Pact (2018), pledged to by UK retailers, aims to eliminate packaging like this by 2025. However, there has been minimal movement towards this goal, with under 20% of its retail members selling loose produce in 2022 (WRAP, 2023).
Currently, the UKâs only regulation around this issue is the Plastic Packaging Tax (UK Government, 2024). Unnecessary plastic packaging is taxed based on its recyclability, mass and potential environmental impact, applying to the suppliers of the fresh food, the supermarkets stocking the fruit and vegetables and the customer purchasing the goods. However, packaging containing below 30% of plastic is exempt from this, and therefore also most produce packaging. Redressing this to include all traces of plastic, and to increase the tax would deter suppliers from using unnecessary plastic packaging. This would also deter supermarkets from stocking product and customers from buying this produce, with a similar success seen with the 5p plastic bag charge that reduced sales by 98% since 2015 (DEFRA, 2023).
Perhaps the most effective mechanism to control this issue, would be a ban. Single-use plastic packaging for produce is currently exempt from UK single-use plastic bans and restrictions (DEFRA, 2022). A ban on fresh produce packaging has successfully implemented in France, where it is now law that by 2040 all plastic packaging on unprocessed fruits and vegetables must be removed. New laws regarding this issue is also true for other European countries such as Spain and Germany. To take a similar route, British supermarkets could impose a restriction on sturdier produce. If apples, bananas and potatoes were sold loose, plastic packaging would be reduced by 8,800 tonnes and save 80,000 tonnes of CO2e, per year (Conroy, James and Quested, 2024). Not only would a restriction of single-use plastic reduce pollution, other benefits would include household waste reduction, food waste reduction and reduction of associated carbon emissions.
Without a doubt, both command and control and market-based mechanisms would be the most effective in tackling this issue. By tightening national laws and reviewing taxes regarding the use of plastic would mitigate the further long-term international impact remains a forever reminder of reckless disregard to the issue, as microplastics linger forever in our earth system.
References:
Conroy, C., James, K. and Quested, T. (2024). âPolicy recommendation for removing packaging from uncut fresh produce 2024â. [online] www.wrao.ngo. WRAP. Available at: https://www.wrap.ngo/resources/report/removing-packaging-uncut-fresh-produce#download-file [Accessed 22 Oct. 2024].
DEFRA (2022) The United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020 (Exclusions from Market Access Principles: Single-Use Plastics) Regulations 2022. SI 2022/857. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2022/857/introduction/made (Accessed: 22 October 2024).
DEFRA (2023). Coverage of the introduction of restrictions on a range of single-use plastics. Available at: https://deframedia.blog.gov.uk/2023/10/02/coverage-of-the-introduction-of-restrictions-on-a-range-of-single-use-plastics/ [Accessed 22 Oct. 2024].
Demetrious, A. and Crossin, E. (2019). Life cycle assessment of paper and plastic packaging waste in landfill, incineration, and gasification-pyrolysis. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 21(850-860). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-019-00842-4.
Greenpeace and Everyday Plastic (2022). The Big Plastic Count results . [online] https://thebigplasticcount.com, pp.1â9. Available at: https://thebigplasticcount.com/media/The-Big-Plastic-Count-Results-Report.pdf [Accessed 17 Oct. 2024].
Liu, S., Guo, J., Liu, X., Yang, R., Wang, H., Sun, Y., Chen, B. and Dong, R. (2023). Detection of various microplastics in placentas, meconium, infant feces, breastmilk and infant formula: A pilot prospective study. Science of The Total Environment, [online] 854(158699), p.158699. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158699.
Madhvee Dhairykar, Shobha Jawre and Nidhi Rajput. Impact of plastic pollution on wildlife and its natural habitat. The Pharma Innovation Journal. 2022; 11(6S): 141-143.
UK Government. “Plastic Packaging Tax.” HM Revenue & Customs, UK Government, https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/plastic-packaging-tax. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
WRAP (2023). The UK Plastics Pact Annual Progress Report 2022-2023. [online] www.wrap.ngo, p.11. Available at: https://www.wrap.ngo/sites/default/files/2023-11/the-uk-plastics-pact-annual-report-2022-2023-0.pdf?_gl=1*9coo1r*_ga*MTg5MTE4MjE5LjE3Mjk2MjMyNDk.*_ga_C43RKFPDL6*MTcyOTYyMzI0OC4xLjAuMTcyOTYyMzI0OS4wLjAuMA.. [Accessed 22 Oct. 2024].
Waste water: a sewage crisis (Celeste Gonçalves Olomo)
Wording and policy surrounding sewage is a major cause for concern in the successful regulation of sewage in the UK. Sewage is defined as the âwastewater and excrement conveyed in sewersâ, a definition which unfortunately leaves scope for discrepancies in policy wording and regulation enforcement surrounding this topic. From this definition, one may think of sewage as a constituent of waste, thus requiring it to be stated under waste management regulations, however, sewage is not stated under Part 3, âwaste and resource efficiencyâ, of the Environment Act 2021. Additionally, governmental statistics on waste in the UK fail to state sewage as a waste category thus creating an absence of information and data regarding this increasingly concerning source of waste. Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge the presence of sewage proposals under Part 5 of the Environment act (2021), âwaterâ. Sewage regulations are
also stated under the Public Health Act 1936 due to the threats it poses to human health.
Defining that sewage is only âconveyed in sewersâ leaves scope to disregard other forms of wastewater which may be entering the UKâs waterways directly, creating further discrepancies. Again, it is important to consider that the government includes industrial discharge which does not enter sewage in its EC Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive document titled: âSewage treatment in the UKâ.
Sewage is an enormous source of waste in the UK with over 11 billion tonnes of wastewater entering 347,000km of sewers per day. The increasing discharge of raw sewage into the UKâs waterways has seen 75% of the UKâ rivers now put human health at a serious risk and has led to the rise of several pressure groups such as âsurfers against sewageâ calling for changes to be made in the regulation and monitoring of sewage treatments and discharge. Additionally, studies have found that concentrations of nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals and other substances can increase when exposed to untreated or poorly treated sewage. Increases in nutrients causes eutrophication of waters, to the health and survival of that ecosystem. Despite the presence of sewage in legal policies, individuals and communities continue to advocate for better sewage management eluding that these policies are not effectively managing sewage
across the UK. The societal health impact of sewage makes public law a useful strategy to begin to manage sewage, however, the further complexity of sewage waste, such as sewage ownership, to the scale of sewage waste from homes or large companies means that private law may also be needed to provide better management. A combination of legal mechanisms may be best suited to wholly tackle the sewage crisis in the UK. Command and control and marketbased mechanisms may begin to set the foundations for legal regulation of sewage.
Community-based regulation can be used as a reinforcement these mechanisms, hopefully improving the monitoring and further management of sewage. This essay proposes a taxation scheme or the use of quotas or subsidies to regulate the discharge, treatment and management of sewage in the UK as well as exploring ways that existing regulations can be reformed to better regulate sewage. It will also be interesting to explore the role that adaptive law could play in sewage waste management within the UK in the future.
A Market-based Approach to Reducing Agricultural Methane from the UKâs Livestock Industry (Rob Japes)
Emissions from UK livestock farming account for 62% of agricultural greenhouse gas
emissions, primarily in the form of methane from cattle and sheep (DEFRA, 2024). Although
emissions declined in the 1990s, they have remained stable since the 2000s, continuing as a
major source of pollution (DEFRA, 2024). With the UK’s legal commitment to achieving net-zero
greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, addressing emissions from livestock farming is crucial to
meeting climate targets (Burnett, et al., 2024).
Despite agriculture only accounting for 10% of the UKâs total greenhouse gas emissions, it
produces almost half of the entire UKâs methane emissions, most of which coming from
ruminants (sheep, cattle, etc) (AHDB, n.d.). Methane is 80 times more harmful than CO2 over
the course of 20 years, trapping significantly more heat in the atmosphere per molecule, and
itâs estimated to be responsible for over a quarter of the global warming (UN Environment
Programme, 2022). As agricultural methane is uniquely produced, through biological
processes, mitigation is difficult, requiring major changes in agricultural practices and a shift in
consumer preferences towards more sustainable produce.
There is currently no legislation put in place by the UK Government to combat these emissions,
instead only voluntary initiatives to work with farmers to reduce methane (DEFRA, 2023). One of
these initiatives is the introduction of methane-inhibiting food additives that would reduce the
volume of methane produced from ruminants, achieving the environmental benefits of reduced
methane emissions without harming the livestock (Palangi & Lackner, 2022). However, this
initiative isnât expected to come to market until at least 2025 (DEFRA, 2023); consequently, the
lack of immediate regulation means that methane emissions from this sector will continue to
harm the environment in the near term. Therefore introducing regulation in the short term,
before technological innovations can catch up, is crucial to prevent further environmental
harm.
One effective approach to reduce the emissions from livestock farming is to shift consumer
habits away from environmentally harmful meat products. One method this could be achieved
is using a combination of warning labels and taxes on meat products on the consumer end; this
results in a reduction of ruminant (e.g. beef) meat sales (Taillie, et al., 2024), through increased
prices which causes demand, and therefore supply, to decrease (less red meat is farmed)
(Edgmand, et al., 1996). A further study found that between 2003 and 2018, the greenhouse gas
emissions from the US diet fell by over 35%, and over half of this reduction was from the lower
beef consumption (ruminants) (Bassi, et al., 2022). Introducing a similar tax in the UK would
increase the price of meat on the consumer-side, forcing a shift in consumption habits away
from environmentally harmful produce, therefore reducing the supply and the emissions from
the industry.
In conclusion, a market-based approach in the form of a tax would help tackle this issue. This
would help reduce the emissions, particularly methane from the livestock industry and aid in
the UK Governmentâs commitment to reaching net-zero emissions by 2050.
References:
AHDB, n.d. Greenhouse gas emissions: agriculture. [Online] Available at: https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/greenhouse-gas-emissions-agriculture [Accessed 24 October 2024].
Bassi, C., Maysels, R. & Anex, R., 2022. Declining greenhouse gas emissions in the US diet (2003â2018): Drivers and demographic trends. Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 351.
Burnett, N., Hinson, S. & Stewart, I., 2024. The UK’s plans and progress to reach net zero by 2050, London: UK Government.
DEFRA, 2023. Further action to cut methane emissions from livestock. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/further-action-to-cut-methane-emissionsfrom-livestock [Accessed 24 October 2024].
DEFRA, 2024. Agri-climate report 2023, London: Official Statistics.
Edgmand, M., Moowaw, R. & Olson., K., 1996. Economics and Contemporary Issues. 3rd ed. s.l.:Dryden Press.
Palangi, V. & Lackner, M., 2022. Management of Enteric Methane Emissions in Ruminants Using Feed Additives: A Review. Animals (Basel).
Taillie, L., Bercholz, M., CE, P. & al., e., 2024. Impact of taxes and warning labels on red meat purchases among US consumers: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med.
UN Environment Programme, 2022. What’s the deal with methane?. [Online]
Available at: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/video/whats-dealmethane#:~:text=Due%20to%20its%20structure%2C%20methane,warming%20to%201.5%C2%B0C. [Accessed 24 October 2024]