{"id":2257,"date":"2026-07-20T15:20:32","date_gmt":"2026-07-20T15:20:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sites.exeter.ac.uk\/humanrightsanddemocracyforumblog\/?p=2257"},"modified":"2026-07-20T15:20:33","modified_gmt":"2026-07-20T15:20:33","slug":"from-open-futurity-to-risk-governance-ai-and-the-temporal-turn-of-anti-discrimination-law-by-elisabeth-greif","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/sites.exeter.ac.uk\/humanrightsanddemocracyforumblog\/2026\/07\/20\/from-open-futurity-to-risk-governance-ai-and-the-temporal-turn-of-anti-discrimination-law-by-elisabeth-greif\/","title":{"rendered":"From Open Futurity to Risk Governance: AI and the Temporal Turn of Anti-Discrimination Law, by Elisabeth Greif"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Time and temporality are central to anti-discrimination law, which is fundamentally shaped by assumptions about the past, present, and future. Anti-discrimination law looks back by listing grounds shaped by past injustices, operates in the present as courts reinterpret and assess past facts in light of the present, and keeps the future open through categories like \u201cother status\u201d that allow protection to evolve as new forms of inequality arise. Thus, shifting notions of temporality not only determine which grounds are protected against discrimination but also shape the regulatory techniques of anti-discrimination law. In this post, I analyse how temporal orders are understood and constructed, and how this shapes the design of legal protections against discrimination. I adopt a broad understanding of anti-discrimination law: alongside prohibitions of discrimination in fundamental and human rights law, I also consider the provisions of the European Union\u2019s Regulation 2024\/1689 known as the Artificial Intelligence Act<\/a> (the AI Act) as anti-discrimination law, for two reasons. First, AI is becoming ubiquitous. Consequently, the AI Act imposes obligations on both public and private providers, including deployers. Second, the Act explicitly aims to ensure a \u201chigh level of protection of fundamental rights\u201d (Recital 1), citing \u201cnon-discrimination\u201d as one of its fundamental principles (Recital 27).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Two interrelated developments \u2013 also fundamental to the emergence of modern democracies \u2013 have made anti-discrimination law possible in the first place: the idea of an open and malleable future and the conception of the individual as being equal in freedom and dignity.[1]<\/a> This is reflected in the open regulatory approach of many international non-discrimination clauses.[2]<\/a> However, the promise of an open future has not been fulfilled, not least because technological progress, with its negative side effects, has altered how we perceive temporality. Changes to regulatory approaches under anti-discrimination law reflect a narrowing of the future\u2019s horizon and an exchange of the future for an extended present, in which future risks are treated as being already here.[3]<\/a> Discrimination thus appears less as a breach of normative values and more as a risk to be calculated, minimised, and managed. This shift also raises fundamental questions about our understanding of liberal democracy, as it relocates value judgments from rights\u2011based reasoning to technocratic risk management, narrowing the space for contestation and democratic choice. In the following, I trace a shift from open futurity to anticipatory naming to a risk-managed present.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Anti-discrimination: Learning from the Past and Opening Unknown Futures<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

After 1945, following the Universal Declaration of Human Rights<\/a>, non-discrimination clauses typically paired an enumerated list of grounds, such as race, sex, and religion, with an open-ended category, such as \u201cother status\u201d. In this architecture, past, present, and future each do distinct work. The listed criteria largely draw on past experiences of exclusion and unequal treatment, yet treaty bodies and courts assess them only in the present, reconstructing and (re)interpreting past events. Categories such as \u201cother status\u201d, however, signal an open, unknown future: they temper the past orientation of non-discrimination clauses by enabling recognition of emergent grounds and the dynamic development of protections, acknowledging the time-bound character of anti-discrimination law. This is reflected in the European Court of Human Rights\u2019 case law, where \u201cother status\u201d has included, for example, sexual orientation<\/a> and disability. In Glor v Switzerland<\/a><\/em> (2009), the Court grounded disability\u2019s inclusion under \u201cother status\u201d in the principle that the ECHR<\/a> \u201cmust be interpreted in the light of present-day conditions\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Naming Risks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Towards the end of the twentieth century, the idea of an open and unknown future began to unravel as scientific and technological developments accelerated, bringing the future ever closer to the present. It was no longer the uncertainties of an unknown future that mattered but imminent developments. Genetic engineering became emblematic[4]<\/a>: rapid progress was perceived as a dramatic change that not only aroused enthusiasm but also posed an imminent, tangible threat both to individuals and humanity. Drafters expressed \u201cthe concern that genetic testing, which can detect a genetic disease, a predisposition or a susceptibility to a genetic disease, may become a means of selection and discrimination.\u201d[5]<\/a> This prompted a departure from the earlier temporal framework of anti-discrimination law, leading to explicit bans on discrimination on the grounds of \u201cgenetic heritage\u201d (Article 11 of the 1997 Oviedo Convention<\/a>) and \u201cgenetic features\u201d (Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union<\/a>). In both cases, the prohibition was framed less as a response to past atrocities than as an attempt to address anticipated future risks of discrimination.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Risk Governance as \u2018De-futurisation\u2019<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

With the advent of artificial intelligence, technological progress has accelerated rapidly, and developments now unfold at a pace that outstrips our ability to comprehend. The future is subsumed into an extended present, in which risks materialise here and now. This acceleration is accompanied by ubiquity \u2013 artificial intelligence is thus perceived not as a mere technique but as an ecosystem<\/a>. This temporal recalibration has prompted new forms of regulation, in which the focus shifts from combating discrimination to managing risks treated as endemic to deployment. The AI Act\u2019s risk management framework exemplifies this approach, which centres regulation on risk categorisation, mitigation, and ongoing monitoring. Its Annex III lists a limited number of AI systems whose risks \u201chave already materialised or are likely to materialise in the near future\u201d[6]<\/a>, such as those used in law enforcement, administration of justice, or democratic processes. For these \u201chigh-risk AI systems\u201d, the AI Act establishes a framework that includes data governance, technical documentation, and record-keeping throughout the AI system\u2019s life cycle. These measures can be understood as acts of \u201cdefuturisation\u201d[7]<\/a> in that they seek to secure the future by pre-emptively addressing present risks. Thus, the AI Act aims to be a future-proof legal framework.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

These three shifts trace a move from open futurity to anticipatory naming to an extended present governed by risk, with corresponding changes in the techniques used to pursue equality. If we assume \u2013 as initially stated \u2013 that an open, malleable future underpins both the principles of anti-discrimination law and the idea of individuals as equal in freedom and dignity, this raises key questions for future research. After all, the recognition of individuals as equal in freedom and dignity (under Article 1 of the 1948 UDHR) lies at the heart of liberal democracies. What does it then mean for the idea of equality \u2013 and thus of liberal democracy \u2013 when the future narrows, and risks are treated as inevitable? How does this shift towards risk management affect the foundations of our political system? At the very least, it may alter how law binds time and keeps equality claims open to future recognition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Elisabeth Greif is professor for Legal Gender Studies, Diversity, and Anti-Discrimination Law at Johannes Kepler University Linz. She is head of the Institute for Legal Gender Studies<\/a> and affiliated with the LIT Law Lab.<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Photograph illustrating this post: Elisabeth Greif.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n\n\n\n

[1]<\/a> Gesa Lindemann, \u2018The Double Understanding of Norms and the Prospectives of Current Socio-technical Developments\u2019 in G\u00fcnter Getzinger (ed), Conference Proceedings of the STS Conference Graz 2019: Critical Issues in Science, Technology and Society Studies, 6\u20137 May 2019 (Graz University of Technology, Graz 2019) 274\u2013288, DOI: 10.3217\/978-3-85125-668-0-15.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[2]<\/a> E.g., Article 2 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (\u201cwithout distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status\u201d); Article 26 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (\u201ceffective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status\u201d); Article 2(2) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (\u201cwithout discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status\u201c).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[3]<\/a> Helga Nowotny, \u2018From the Future to the Extended Present\u2019 in Guy Kirsch, Peter Nijkamp and Klaus Zimmermann (eds), The Formulation of Time Preferences in a Multidisciplinary Perspective: Their Consequences for Individual Behaviour and Collective Decision-Making (Avebury 1988) 17\u201332<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[4]<\/a> Publications proclaimed \u201cthe dawn of a genetic age\u201d; see Peter Conrad and Jonathan Gabe, \u2018Introduction: Sociological Perspectives on the New Genetics: An Overview\u2019 in Peter Conrad and Jonathan Gabe (eds), Sociological Perspectives on the New Genetics<\/em> (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford 1999).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[5]<\/a>  Council of Europe, Explanatory Report to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine <\/em>(ETS No 164, 1997) para 74, https:\/\/rm.coe.int\/1680a8e4d0<\/a> accessed 15.7.2026.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[6]<\/a> European Commission, \u2018Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts\u2019 COM(2021) 206 final, 21 April 2021, https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/RegData\/docs_autres_institutions\/commission_europeenne\/com\/2021\/0206\/COM_COM(2021)0206_EN.pdf<\/a> accessed 15.7.2026.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[7]<\/a> Niklas Luhmann, \u2018The Future Cannot Begin: Temporal Structures in Modern Society\u2019 (1976) 43(1) Social Research 130.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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